Hellenism and Christianity

We’ve had quite a debate going in the comments section of my last post. The sparing back and forth about Greek influence on the early Christian church has evoked strong emotions on both sides. I feel like I’m sitting at the net in a tennis match.

Seriously, though, the link between Christianity and Greek philosophy is a subject we should investigate. The Hellenistic period itself is interesting, although enigmatic at the same time. Named by Professor D.S. Droysan, a German academic of the nineteenth century, Hellenistic refers to the time span from 322 B.C.to 30 B.C in Eastern Europe and Western Asia when Greek culture became widespread after the death of Alexander. Using one word to characterize the period is risky because the period was not uniform, but the term is now universal so we have to use it.

 

When Alexander died, his associates fought for control of his legacy.

As the map above shows, four “kingdoms” resulted from their division of the spoils. This map is a snapshot in time which does not represent any long term political organization of the period. We only use it here to visually represent the Hellenistic world.  

Our focus in this post is on the cultural influences at work and their impact on the people who would eventually be exposed to Paul’s teaching – the Hellenistic gentiles. That knowledge will then lead to a discussion about the fusion of Hellenistic thought and Christianity.

The fundamental character of the Hellenistic era was found in its cities which acted as engines for cultural development. These urban centers were controlled by Greeks, not the locals who were forced into the role of a proletariat class. The controlling faction was made up of rich aristocrats, who ruled autocratically, despite the trappings of the traditional Greek political model. These “patricians” took on a bourgeois character -- living off inherited wealth and using slaves to provide the labor they required. Socially they were arrogant and focused on maintaining their lofty position. Still, they spent lavishly to beautify their cities and were open to new ideas brought in from the outside.

Education was given a high priority during the Hellenistic Age because the aristocrats wanted their offspring to be “citizens of the world”. Let me quote from my April 21, 2011 article on Greek education to provide additional detail.

“Paideia,  the technique of teaching in the Greek system turns into anxesis, which is the same word in Hellenistic Greek with a new meaning. No longer an educational method, the word now meant attainment of a cultural ideal through education.

Wherever the Greeks went – Babylon, Egypt, or Susiana – they brought their own institutions with them, including the schools. An education was essential in a foreign land because the Greeks had to train their sons to be successful adults. This “classical education” was now nothing more than preparation for a Greek way of life.

This concept of education had now advanced from the subsidiary role in Plato’s world to an equal player in the development of the rational Hellenistic adult. Hellenists saw their education as the most valuable asset his life, as evidenced by those who were buried with grave markers highlighting their educational accomplishments. Stilpo, when asked if he needed to be compensated for losses incurred during the pillage of Megara said, “I have lost nothing that belongs to me, I still have my culture, my logos”.

Speaking of logos, let’s move on to discuss new philosophical doctrines that emerged during the Hellenistic period. The most important of these was Stoicism, first introduced by Zeno circa 300 B.C. Stoic theology asserts that the world is divinely governed by a predetermined plan of God. That plan orders the universe in a rational way, and man must seek to understand the world to perceive God’s plan. To support the requirement for rationality, the Stoics created a view of physics based on Heraclitus and Aristotle. This view places in Zeus’ hands the ability to place the logos or spark in the body of every human being.

Let me list some of the major tenets of Stoic theology.

1. There is one God who created the universe (some Stoics kept the door

 open for polytheism).

2. God infuses man with a spirit – Logos.

3. When a person dies his spark returns to the divine spirit.

4. A person’s soul lives forever in the Isle of the Blest.

5. Men must strive to live in conformity with the divine plan.

6. What happens to the body does not matter as long as the soul is pure.

7. A wise man exhibits the qualities of temperance, judgment, bravery, and

    justice.

8. All men are equal as human beings.

This reads like Christian philosophy 300 years ahead of itself, doesn’t it?

But the Stoics go deeper, trying to understand the relationship between the cosmic world and the world of man. For example, they addressed the paradox of evil in the world if God is intrinsically good. They concluded that evil was necessary because there had to be an opposite to good. And there were other justifications for evil offered. War appears evil but at the same time reduces the population. Mice are troublesome but having them reminds us to be clean.

The Stoics also thought about how to live in a world where our fate is beyond our control. What value does prayer have if our lives are predetermined? Some believed that prayer has no purpose other than easing the mind. Others believed that prayer acts as the acknowledgement of the power of God and the acceptance of one’s fate.

So we see these Stoic attempts to rationalize the most difficult questions of theology. Over the five hundred year period from Zeno to Seneca these beliefs evolved, adapting to criticism and the changing world.

Now we can move on to the other Important philosophy of the Hellenistic period --- Epicureanism. Simple and bundled neatly in a package, this philosophy attempts to simplify life in a way that rationalizes human behavior.

While the Stoics only accepted the notion of sensation, the Epicureans embraced it. Epicurus, the founder, asserted that if man desired physical pleasure and sought to avoid physical pain he should spend his life actively seeking the former. Gods were not important to him because he believed that if they exist, they allow the universe to operate on its own. Belief in God, then, comes down to personal preference. There is no afterlife so living to please God has no purpose.

In these two theologies we have the product of Hellenistic thinkers who explored  the same problems we face today. How do we characterize God and our relationship with him? Is life predetermined and what control do we have over our lives. What are the consequences of sin in this life and the next if it exists.

There is no question in my mind that Hellenistic thinking influenced Christianity through the beliefs extant when Paul traveled the Hellenistic world. Stoicism, in particular, appears as a precursor to the Christian world view. We’ll discuss this further in the next post.

Christianity and the Roman Empire – Part III The Second Century

So we arrive at the second century A.D. and find the Catholic Church’s administrative apparatus in place and the new church flourishing. As mentioned in recent posts, the destruction of the temple by the Romans and the death of the Jerusalem Christians is a common marking point for the end of Jewish control of Christianity.  That is not to say that it marked the final split between the two religions, however. The separation actually took a couple of centuries.

One can understand this link between Judaism and Christianity by recalling the story of Jacob and Esau who, as brothers, fought each other in the womb. Both religions were variations of messianic philosophy. In the Jewish case, the belief was derived from second century B.C. apocalyptic literature. In the Christian case, Jesus was the messiah and his resurrection the foundation of the belief system. But the resurrected messiah was incomprehensible to the Jewish religion because it did not allow a kinship between man and God.

The Romans did not differentiate between Jews and Christians until 96 A.D. when the Fiscus Judiacus (tax on Jews) was implemented. This tax was imposed on all Jews of the empire as reparations for the revolt against Rome that resulted in the destruction of the temple in 70 A.D. Christians were not required to pay the tax.

Of course there were cases in the first century when the Christians were singled out for persecution, first under Nero and then Domitian, but our interest for this post lies specifically in the second century.

The following are the major currents we’ll be discussing:

The development of Christian dogma

Apologists

The heresies

The persecutions

The first three describe aspects of the development of the Catholic Church and the fourth the Roman reaction against the behavior of Christians.

As time went on, the Christian dogma was refined as scholars analyzed the sacred writings and came to conclusions about their meaning. The dogma was build brick by brick, sentence by sentence until it became the law of the church. The dogma was defended by apologists who sought to put it in the context of the history of man and the life of Jesus of Nazareth. Simultaneous with the defense was the offence – working against the many variants of the main belief system. These heretical outliers threatened to undermine and dilute the exclusive role of the Catholic Church as protector of the Christian theology.

Below are some brief sketches about the lives of early Christian theologians.

Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch (50-108), stressed the relationship between the teachings of Jesus and the hierarchy of the church -- that Christians should obey their bishops. He was martyred in Rome.

Justin Martyr (100-165), an apologist, was one of the earliest Christian writers. Born in Judea and martyred in Rome, Justin believed that the Greek philosophers took their essential ideas from the Hebrew Bible, proving the eternalness of the Christian belief system. He labeled Socrates a Christian. In his Dialog with Trypho, Justin demonstrated why Christians are the true people of God.

Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyon (140-202) was an apologist known for his book Against Heresies. Irenaeus took specific aim at Gnostics who were causing a great threat to the church. Gnostics believed that a person could achieve salvation through the acquisition of secret knowledge of God. Furthermore some Gnostics saw Jesus as the vehicle that brought this knowledge to the human race. Irenaeus succeeded to the title of Bishop of Lyon when he absent in Rome during a massacre there.

Tertullian (160-225) was an early Christian writer from Carthage who, like Irenaeus, was an apologist writing against heresies. Tertullian has been labeled the “Father of Western Theology” and was the first to use the term “trinity”.

Origen (185-253) was an Alexandrian scholar and theologian, whose father was martyred during the reign of Septimius Severus. One of Origen’s important contributions was First Principles a book which describes God as the logos, the Holy Spirit, the doctrine of sin and redemption, and the Bible.

Throughout the second century the church moved forward developing its theology and solidifying its administrative apparatus as the only true interpreter of Christian theology through its link to the savior. But progress was also disrupted by the Roman persecutions which were much more serious in the 100s than at any other time. I was surprised that this “Golden Age” of the empire with its superior leadership could have been so cruel to the Christians – particularly during the time of Marcus Aurelius, the stoic.

Prior to Marcus, the emperors of the second century followed the outline of Trajan who specified to Pliny that Christians not be sought out but rather tried in court if evidence of their guilt could be presented. There is no question that the persecutions were more severe under Marcus but we lack evidence that he created a new more restrictive policy. The persecutions appear to be local, originating with the provincial magistrates and there has been speculation about Marcus’ involvement in them. For example, one academic felt that Marcus’ personality was impacted by the troubles of his reign – incessant wars, famine, and disease, and these made him turn his anger against the Christians.

Below is one of the few quotes we have from Marcus Aurelius about Christians.

That soul which is ever ready, even now presently (if need be) from the body, whether by way of extinction, or dispersion, or continuation in another place and estate to be separated, how blessed and happy is it! But this readiness of it, it must proceed, not from obstinate and peremptory resolution of the mind, violently and passionately set upon Opposition, as Christians are wont;  but from a peculiar judgment; with discretion and gravity, so that others may be persuaded also and drawn to the like example, but without any noise and passionate exclamations.

In other words, to him, the soul must be properly prepared to leave the body at the end of one’s life. That preparation must take a form that sets an example for others. This he contrasts with the Christian attitude which is “obstinate and violently set upon opposition”, like tragic actors.

After Marcus, Severus returned to the previously established policy of Trajan with some exceptions. For example he sought to prohibit conversions to Christianity and Judaism. There were some severe persecutions in Africa during the early 200s A.D.

Here we close the story of the second century and move on. By the time another century had passed, the Christian church was moving rapidly toward official recognition by the empire. Then, as we’ve discussed before, the church would rise as the empire was moving toward collapse.

Was Jesus a Militant Leader?

When you dig into the secular writing about Jesus of Nazareth, or even the Scriptures for that matter, you notice information that appears to contradict what we have been taught about the peaceful nature of the man. Some quotes suggest that he may have been a militant revolutionary in addition to a charismatic spiritual leader. The subject of this article is to look at the history and the quotes from our sources, to see what we may uncover.

Religion is one of the most difficult topics for a historian because it treads on human sensitivity.  There are 2 billion Christians in the world who have accepted the accuracy of the story of Jesus, as portrayed in the gospels. I do not question those beliefs, but at the same time, I want to look for the truth which results from an analytical approach to the information extant on the subject.

The subject matter in this instance is made more difficult because there are heavy political agendas at work – understandable at the beginning but now dogma after two millennia. The early Christians sought to give meaning to the events that overwhelmed them when their leader was crucified so their writings reflected the ardor they felt. Later, the fully formed Catholic Church attacked the Jewish people because it wanted to separate itself as a new religion and show favoritism to the Romans who had just gone to war against the Jews. The Jews, themselves, tried to distance themselves from the early Christians who they saw as seriously deviant from the law of the Torah.

And now we begin with the “cleansing of the temple”

Matt 21:12. “And Jesus entered the temple of God and drove out all who sold and bought in the temple, and he overturned the tables of the money-changers and the seats of those who sold pigeons. He said to them, "It is written, 'My house shall be called a house of prayer'; but you make it a den of robbers."

John 2:14. “In the temple he found those who were selling oxen and sheep and pigeons, and the money changers at their business. And making a whip of cords, he drove them all, with the sheep and oxen, out of the temple; and he poured out the coins of the money-changers and overturned their tables. And he told those who sold the pigeons, “Take these things away; you shall not make my father’s house a house of trade.” His disciples remembered that it was written, “Zeal for thy house will consume me.”

What really happened here? Was there violence? It appears so.

The above drawing shows the temple layout. The holy sanctuary is in the center, and on either side are open areas referred to as the Court of the Gentiles. It was here that tables were set up by merchants to sell sacrificial animals. In other words they were providing a necessary function for those wishing to sacrifice in the temple.

The temple had a significant security force. A cohort of Roman soldiers was stationed at the Antonia Fortress and there was also a Jewish “police” force protecting the holy site.

To quote from the Jewish encyclopedia – “The priests and Levites of the Second Temple were organized into groups, with proper officers or captains. Under the high priest the senior officer was more generally designated as his lieutenant. The officer named in the passages quoted in Acts 4:1 corresponds to the one given the same title by Josephus. He is the captain of the Levitical temple-guard, a body of police, referred to also in Luke 22:4. The officers that assisted in the arrest of Jesus cited in John 18:12, may have belonged to this company.”

The temple area was a busy place with perhaps 20,000 people there at one time.

The passages above describe the driving of merchants and money changers out of the temple. How many were driven out -- one, ten, one hundred? If Jesus wanted to create a memorable demonstration, it would have to have been large enough to include physical violence. The Temple police would not have allowed the commotion to escalate before getting involved. Perhaps Jesus had a large group with him (200?). They would have held off the security forces while the demonstration was underway, and then fought their way free.

The Temple episode is further tied to subsequent events, the next being Jesus’ betrayal by Judas. Judas led the authorities to Jesus and his followers and kissed him as a means of identification. They must have been in a secret location because the Pharisees would not have paid Judas money to find someone they could find themselves. He had to be giving away their location. Were they in hiding because of the violence at the temple?

When they Pharisees arrive at the garden, the following happens:

Mark 14:43 “And immediately, while he was still speaking, Judas came, one of the twelve, and with him a crowd with swords and clubs, from the chief priests and the scribes and the elders. Now the betrayer had given them a sign saying, “The one I shall kiss the man; seize him and lead him away under guard.” And when he came, he went up to him at once, and said “Master!” And he kissed him. And they laid hands on him and seized him. But one of those who stood by drew his sword, and struck the slave of the high priest and cut off his ear. And Jesus said to them, “Have you come out as against a robber, with swords and clubs to capture me?”

So Jesus’ associates were armed. It doesn’t say who wielded the sword so we don’t know if it was one of the eleven remaining disciples, but Jesus undoubtedly had more than eleven men with him, perhaps a body guard or a small militia. The “twelve” always stand as his closest followers, but there are several occasions in the Bible where a larger group is mentioned. In Luke, for example, Jesus sends out seventy to preach. Also why did the accusers feel they needed to be armed in going to apprehend Jesus? Seems like they expected resistance.

Note the following Gospel passages that reference the use of swords and their purpose.

Matt 10:34. “Think not that I am come to send peace on earth: I came not to send peace, but a sword.”

Luke 22:36. “Then said he unto them, But now, he that hath a purse, let him take it, and likewise his scrip: and he that hath no sword, let him sell his garment, and buy one. For I say unto you, that this that is written must yet be accomplished in me, And he was reckoned among the transgressors: for the things concerning me have an end. And they said, Lord, behold, here are two swords. And he said unto them, It is enough.”

Where Jesus followers always armed? Obviously we don’t know, but again, there is this subtle thread of militancy.

Now Jesus is arrested and we segue to the trial. There has been much debate about this. One thing for certain is that crucifixion is punishment for sedition against Rome and stoning is the Jewish punishment for crimes against the religion, so Pilate must have been convinced of the reality of Jesus’ crimes against Rome in order to condemn him. We know so little about Pilate and have no primary source information about this episode, so it’s hard to guess what was in his mind. I doubt that he was the wimp portrayed in the Gospels – letting the Pharisees talk him into killing Jesus.

“So when Pilate saw that he was gaining nothing, but rather that a riot was beginning, he took water and washed his hands before the crowd saying, “I am innocent of this man’s blood; see to it yourselves.” But they can’t see to it themselves and at the same time use the Roman punishment. In the next sequence Roman guards take him to the Praetorium were he is scourged – totally under control of the Romans.

These three scenes from the Gospels give us a hint of militancy at work. But are we imagining something that isn’t there? It’s not unusual for historians to consider facts detrimental to the image of Jesus as true. Their reasoning -- no Gospel writer would knowingly hurt Jesus’ image unless the facts were accurate. The most famous case of this is the baptism by John. Explaining why a sinless man would need to be purified had been problematic for the apologists over the centuries.

In the cases cited above we have just a few threads to go on. Why were Jesus and his followers hiding, until their location was given away by Judas? Were the events in the Temple violent and seditious as seen through the eyes of the Procurator? Why did Pilate condemn Jesus to a Roman death? We just don’t have definitive answers.

I have no problem imaging Jesus as militant for his cause. The mission in Galilee was a failure and the people did not understand the urgency of his message. With time passing and the end getting closer he may have felt an increasing urgency to make the people realize what was coming. He was certainly militant in thought and speech regarding the poor and downtrodden. Why not militant by action also?

Christianity and the Roman Empire – Part II The First Century (Continued)

During the third decade of the first century a new prophet appeared in Galilee. His message was consistent with the currents of the time, but he also placed a new focus on the poor and disadvantaged. Most importantly, he claimed to be inaugurating the kingdom of God on earth through his own special relationship with the creator.  This post is about that prophet, Jesus of Nazareth, and the religion created in his name. Christianity caused a violent reaction in the Roman empire initially but, in time, conquered it. In 476 A.D. when Romulus Augustus abdicated, it was only the pope who was left standing.

Jesus of Nazareth was raised in Galilee, but we know little about him before his meeting with John the Baptist. Starting in the mid-twenties A.D, he travelled across Galilee preaching a message of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God. To properly prepare for this event, the Jewish people must repent for their hypocrisy and embrace all human beings as their brothers, including women, the poor, and the disadvantaged. Without that repentance, they could hold no hope for immortality.

Jesus was well-educated (Pharisee caliber?) and was a master at using parables to reinforce his teachings. He was also said to have healed the sick and cared for the most desperate of human beings.

Despite his wisdom and charisma, Jesus’ Galilean mission was a failure because the people could not comprehend his message. Even his family did not understand his intent, causing him to express frustration at them. “If anyone comes to me and does not hate his mother and father, wife and children, brothers and sisters… he cannot be a disciple of mine.” And “A prophet is not without honor, except in his own country, and among his own kin, and in his own house." In addition to his lack of success, Jesus had created animosity in the Galilean Pharisees, who were angered by his criticism of the Jewish law and could not abide his association with undesirables.

Later, when Jesus heard that the Baptist had been executed, he was forced to hide in the kingdom of Philip to avoid the wrath of Antipas, who was sensitive to perceived revolutionary activity.

Finally, Jesus made his way to Jerusalem, knowing full well he might have to die for his beliefs as the Baptist had done. He chose Jerusalem because it was the center of the Jewish state and a demonstration against the leadership would have the maximum impact. That demonstration is known as the cleansing of the temple, where he turned over the tables of merchants and criticized the Sadducees for disrespecting the holy place.

The response of the Pharisees and Sadducees was a plot to have Jesus eliminated. They convinced the Roman procurator, Pontius Pilate, that the prophet’s activities were subversive and he represented a threat to Roman rule.  Then, following a mock trial, Pilate agreed to have Jesus crucified.

Jesus’ horrible death nearly destroyed his followers who could not accept that their messiah would die in such a shameful way when he was supposed to lead them to glory. But then, defeat became victory when his followers believed they saw Jesus alive after the crucifixion, proving that he had risen from the dead. If he had risen from the dead and become visible he must have had a special relationship with God and that special relationship had to be father and son, they reasoned.

A small sect of Jewish Christians formed in Jerusalem which held to the Jewish faith but also worshiped Jesus as a new kind of messiah – the suffering servant of God. As time went on, perhaps through the mid-thirties, small parishes were formed with simple worship services, in Synagogues, incorporating baptism with a celebration of the last supper. All Christians patiently waited for the kingdom of God to arrive.

During this time a parallel mission was begun by Paul (Saul) of Tarsus who had seen a vision of Jesus, circa 37 A.D, and become converted to his cause. Paul’s message about Jesus was carried to the gentiles who were not a part of the original mission. He spent two and a half decades traveling the middle east on foot, nurturing embryonic Christian communities in Corinth, Ephesus, Antioch, Damascus, Phrygia, Galatia, Philippi, Thessalonica, and Rome. The larger of these communities contained enough converts to require Bishopic leadership.

The above map shows the early Christian communities with approximate founding dates. The dates come from the travels of Paul, who we associate with most of them.

As one might imagine, a conflict eventually developed between Paul and Jewish Christian leaders in Jerusalem over the requirement to observe Jewish law. Paul traveled to Jerusalem circa 50 A.D. to meet with James, the Bishop of Jerusalem, and the other Christian leaders. The end result was the relaxation of the requirements for gentiles including circumcision. Later, as we discussed in the last post, Christianity become a Gentile religion when Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans. James was stoned to death in 62 A.D and most of the rest of the leadership were killed in 70 A.D.

Parallel to the work of Paul and the Jerusalem Christians was the effort to document the life of Jesus. In the beginning there was no reason to write about Jesus’ life because the world was about to end. But it didn't! When would it end? No one knew. By the time Mark was written (circa 60 A.D.) the church was already three decades removed from the life of Jesus. New generations were being converted and these individuals wanted to know more about Jesus and his life. The Church’s answer was to document events previously related only by word of mouth.

So the end of the first century arrived to see a maturing Christian religion solidly entrenched in important cities of the middle east and Rome. It was a religion of Gentiles by this point because the Jewish Christians were gone. Rome had become the capital of the Catholic Church very rapidly. We don’t have a record of significant missionary work there until 60 A.D. when Peter and Paul arrived, a decade or two behind Antioch, Corinth, and the other centers. Obviously, the position of Rome was enhanced by Peter and Paul living and being martyred there. By 90 A.D, Pope Clement was writing to the church at Corinth advising them as the leader of the church.

Christianity and the Roman Empire – Part II The First Century A.D.

Rome was in constant conflict with the Jewish people during the first century A.D. because the latter had become tired of enslavement by foreign rulers. By the seventh decade that conflict would erupt into the war that destroyed Jerusalem. Earlier, during the third decade, a messianic leader appeared among the Jews and spoke of the coming kingdom of God, before he was captured and crucified by the Romans. His followers, once they had overcome their grief, created a new religion based on Jesus’ life and work. Christianity eventually made its way to Rome and from there, with the help of Constantine, flourished.

We’re  going to divide the first century into two posts. This one will discuss the conflict between the Jews and Romans while the second will bring Christianity into the picture from its inception to the end of the century.

First we start with a lesson in Jewish history to set the stage.

After Alexander, the Seleucid kings Antiochus III and IV conquered and controlled Judea from 200 to 168 B.C. Then in 167 B.C. Judas Maccabaeus and his brothers began a revolt which saw the defeat of their enemy and a treaty with the Roman republic. The victor, Judas Maccabaeus, had a profound impact on his time and is considered one of the four greatest generals of Israel along with Joshua, Gideon, and David. Maccabaeus in Hebrew means “the hammer”.

The Jews ruled themselves efficiently until 66 B.C. when a power struggle broke out between the rival kings Astrobulus II and Hyrcanus II. Their dispute was eventually  brought to Pompey who placed Hyrcanus on the throne and imprisoned his brother. During one of his visits to Jerusalem, Pompey desecrated the Temple and removed gold from its treasury.

In 39 B.C, the Romans installed Herod as the king of Judea and their puppet. Herod restored the temple and reigned until 4 B.C. When he died, a diplomatic contingent traveled to Rome to convince Augustus that he should not allow Herod’s children to be his successors. The request was denied and the Jewish lands were divided into four parts. Archelaus received Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; Antipas Galilee, Philip the east shore of the Sea of Galilee; and Salome the town of Yabne.

Now, with this background, we begin our journey through the first century.

Circa 6 A.D. a revolutionary movement was begun by Judas of Galilee to oppose the Romans for their renewal of taxes and oppressive behavior toward the Jews. The movement’s members resembled bands of robbers rather than an army and were organized locally and not coordinated as a national army. Labeled “zealots” by some, these freedom fighters should not be confused with the zealot faction that acted later, during the siege of Jerusalem. With or without a name, these groups operated for decades acting on their passionate desire to free Israel from bondage.

During the early stages of the resistance, the Romans, under the command of Sabinus, were threatened by repeated attacks of Judas so they called on Varus to bring reinforcements from Syria. His army formed a wave moving north to south, destroying all in their path, crucifying two thousand, and temporarily scattering the insurgents.

After Augustus’ death in 14 A.D, Tiberius took a different approach to the administration of Judea. Rather than sending a series of procurators, he only sent only two: Gratus (15-26) and Pilate (26-36). Neither distinguished himself. Pilate, for his part, got in trouble trying to erect statues of Tiberius around Jerusalem. To the Jewish people this was idol worship.

In 46 A.D, the sons of Judas of Galilee, Jacob and Simon decided it was time to re-ignite the resistance movement, but, during an attack on Rome that year, they were betrayed, captured, and crucified.

Eleazar, their successor and also a descendant of Judas, decided that efforts to attack the Roman army directly were foolish. Resistance to the Romans must operate by stealth, he decided, because the Jewish freedom fighters possessed neither the men nor material needed to defeat them. Eleazar formed a new terrorist organization called Sicarii --  named after the daggers they carried. The Sicarii had one goal – to foment revolution. To achieve this goal they began to assassinate important Jews to emphasize the inevitability of the Jewish revolt. The Sicarii, like the previously mentioned zealot group, operated until the fall of Jerusalem.

In 64 A.D, Nero assigned Florus as the procurator of Judea. The latter set a goal of inciting war as a method to enrich himself. Starting with the murder of 3,000, he communicated the false story that the people of Judea had revolted. While the Jews were deciding how to counter Florus, word came that Menahem, the grandson of Judas of Galilee, had attacked the fortress at Masada and massacred the Roman garrison. Now there was no turning back.

The Sanhedrin met and chose Josephus as governor of Galilee, now occupied by the Roman general Gallus. The Galilean zealots led by John of Gischala opposed this as an impractical political decision. Another leader, John the Essene, emerged to take command of the army fighting in Galilee, but  his attack on the Romans at Gaza was unsuccessful.

Now it was Josephus’ turn. He appeared to prepare an army to fight the Romans but, in fact, was playing both sides. John of Gischala demanded he resign, and the leadership in Jerusalem sought to remove Josephus from office. The Jews ended up fighting amongst themselves when an army from Jerusalem attacked the town of Tiberias where Josephus’s troops were stationed.

The trouble in Galilee came to the attention of Nero who dispatched is best general, Vespasian, to settle the matter. Working his way onto Galilee, Vespasian laid siege to Jotapata. Forty thousand were killed there and Josephus was captured and sent to Rome. Vespasian completed his takeover of the Jewish countryside and began to plan an attack on Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the administrative authority in the city crumbled and the Jewish garrison began a battle with the Zealots who sought the authority to represent the people. Taking control, the zealots murdered all who opposed the revolution. It wasn't long after that Simon bar Giora, commander at Masada decided to attack the zealots in Jerusalem in support of the government party.

Vespasian resisted the temptation to intervene thinking he would let the Jews kill each other and make his job easier. Then, in June of 68 A.D, he received word that Nero was dead, so Vespasian paused to contemplate developments in Rome. As he waited, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius were overthrown in their attempts to become Caesar.

Vespasian retrieved Josephus from prison and made him an advisor on how to deal with the Jews. The new emperor set off for Rome in the fall of 69 A.D, leaving Josephus with his son Titus who was assigned the task of taking Jerusalem.

From May 25^th to September 7^th 70 A.D, Titus laid siege to Jerusalem and its temple, before it fell. Tens of thousands were killed or starved to death by the time the siege ended. John of Gischala and Simon bar Giora were both captured trying to escape, paraded through Rome, and executed. More importantly, the temple was destroyed by fire and the Jewish people lost their anchor.

We can see from the history how the first century was an extremely unsettled time in Judea. Contributing to the turmoil were three forces working in parallel.

1. The Jews unrelenting hatred of the Romans for exploiting them, desecrating their holy places, and worshiping idols. Their desire to be free of the Romans led to desperate and foolish attempts to defeat a superior force.

2. The re-visiting of apocalyptic writings which predicted the end of the world. The Jewish people felt that the repression was so great they would be crushed and destroyed as a culture. These writings include the Old Testament books of Zechariah, Isaiah, and Daniel. The following comes from Daniel 9:11,

“Because all Israel transgressed your law and went astray, not heeding your voice, the sworn malediction, recorded in the law of Moses, the servant of God, was poured out over us for our sins. You carried out the threats you spoke against us and against those who governed us, by bringing upon us in Jerusalem the greatest calamity that has ever occurred under heaven.”

3. Apocalyptical writings had the effect of creating the expectation of a messiah, who would either rescue the Jewish people from oppression or rule at the end of history. The list of first century messiah candidates is long and includes Judas son of Hezekiah, Simon of Peraea, Athronges the Shepherd, Judas of Galilee, John the Baptist, Jesus of Nazareth, the Samaritan Prophet, Theudas, the Egyptian Prophet, John the Essene, Eleazar, Simon bar Giora, John of Gischala, and John the Weaver. None of these men were able to accomplish the objectives expected from Jewish Messiah.

In the next post we will see how one of these men took the western world in a new direction through his force of will and charisma. The impression he made on his followers and their efforts to spread his message would lay the foundation for the most powerful religion in the western world.

Jesus' Coin?

Collecting ancient coins is fun because each coin is a time machine. You hold it in your hand and find yourself transported back to the time when it was struck. Since we're on the subject of Christianity and Rome, let us examine a numismatic link between them.

The coin shown below is a part of my ancient coin collection.

Known as an AE Prutah, this is the ancient Roman bronze coin of Jerusalem. Prutah is a word borrowed from the Mishnah and the Talmund meaning "a coin of smaller value" -- one thousandth of a pound. A loaf of bread at that time sold for 10 Prutot (plural form). Prutot were manufactured in Israel because the Jewish people refused to trade in Roman coinage.

This particular coin was minted during the Prefecture of Pontius Pilate who governed from 26 to 36 A.D. Pilate was of the equestrian rank and a member of the Pontii family. During the time of his administration, Pilate offended the religious sensibilities of his subjects, leading to harsh criticism from Philo and Josephus. According to the latter, he was ordered back to Rome after harshly suppressing a Samaritan uprising, arriving just after the death of Tiberius, which occurred on 16 March in the year 37.

What makes the coin especially interesting is the code LIZ on the reverse which means it was struck in 29 A.D. around the time of the crucifixion. So we have a coin which we know was struck in Jerusalem during the Prefecture of Pontius Pilate and may have been in circulation at the end of Jesus' life.

Who might have held this coin in their hand?

Christianity and the Roman Empire - Part I

A complex subject for sure – but interesting. We see one of the great cultures of antiquity in its death throes and, simultaneously, one of the world’s great religions becoming established inside it. As interesting as the subject matter is, however, we find the study of early Christianity fraught with problems, including a lack of original sources, bias on the part of Christians for their cause, bias against them by their enemies, and changes within the church’s perception of itself and its mission.

In the beginning nothing was written down because the life of Jesus was viewed as an apocalyptic event by his followers. The travels of Paul began the real history when he wrote to the congregations he had established throughout the near east. Paul's life became the center of the debate between Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians about the intentions of Jesus.

For this post, as the introduction to Christianity in the time of the empire, I created a reference frame for further discussions. That reference frame is in the form of a chronology -- a set of milestones in early Christian history related to the Roman emperor in power at the time of the event. This timeline is not exhaustive because there is no way to provide a complete picture in such a small space. It is intended only to provide a sense of the forces at work during the time when the Christian church was becoming established.

Before we discuss the timeline, however, I think it’s important to define my position on the subject matter to be presented here. The reader must understand that I am approaching this subject strictly from a historian’s standpoint, separated from my own religious beliefs. All facts included in this and future discussions are true in my judgment, based on the sources I have consulted. For example, I believe Paul’s travels and his letters are factual historical events. But there are difficulties when we approach the early Christian writers, such as Eusebius, because the zeal they express for their beliefs blurs the history and forces us to apply a filter. What you will read are the facts that made it through the filter.

Emperor	Year	Christian event
Caligula (37-41)	37-40	Paul In Damascus
Claudius (41-54)
Nero (54-69)	60?	Gospel Mark written
	65	Peter and Paul martyred
Vespasian (69-79)	70	Jewish Revolt
	70?	Gospel Matthew/Luke written
Domitian (81-96)		Pope Clement(88-97) writes to Corinth
Trajan (98-117)	95?	Gospel of John written
	108	Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch martyred
Hadrian (117-138)	132	Jewish Revolt, Jerusalem destroyed
Antonius Pius (138-161)	150	Bishopic system in place
	150	Valentinius(Gnostic)
Marcus Aurelius (161-180)	165	Justin Martyr (100-165)
	177	Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons (140-202?)
		Tertullian (160-225)
Septimius Severus dies	211	Break in Persecutions
Philip (244-249)		Pro-Christian
Decius (249-251)	250	Renewed persecutions
	250	Origen (185-253) attack on pagan thought
Valerian (253-260)	258	Massacre of priests and deacons
Diocletian (284-305)	303	Diocletian persecution
Constantine (306-337)	325	First Council of Nicea
	326	First St. Peter's basilica consecrated
	337	Constantine dies
		Eusebius (260-341) History of the church
Julian (360-363)	360	Re-institute Pagan gods
Valentinian (364-375)	364	Council of Laodicea (rest on the sabbath)
	374	Ambrose (340-397)
Theodosius (379-395)	380	Theodosius I baptized
	382	Catholic council of Rome sets Biblical canon
	385	Pricillian executed as a heretic
	391	Outlaws pagan rituals
Honorius (393-423)	420	Jerome (340-420) and the vulgate
Valentinian III (424-455)	430	Augustine (354-430)
	451	Pope Leo (440-461) negotiated with
		Attila

The above chronology highlights the time sequence of six major threads that stretch through the period:

1. Christians struggle to define themselves

2. Christian apologists and their efforts to defend what they had created

3. Gentile Christian attacks on Jewish Christians during their period of rivalry.

4. Christian attacks on paganism, directed against the Greeks as rivals

5. The creation of Catholic dogma and attacks against heretics

6. Persecutions by the Romans

Most persecutions occurred prior to the reign of Constantine, who changed the course of Christianity by legitimizing it and protecting it from attack. The first persecutions were derived from disgust and misunderstanding of the Christians (they drink blood). Later ones were derived from the political threats perceived by the Romans when Christians refused to obey Roman law. Also embedded in the early period was a hysterical desire for martyrdom which saw many Christians actively seeking death in imitation of their savior.

The first few entries on the chronology show the initial period when Christianity was established. Its rapid expansion was a result of Paul’s work and the inherent attractiveness of the religion. The reference to Pope Clement shows how early the Bishop of Rome was communicating to his people and instructing them.

Major figures in the early church are bolded beginning with St. Ignatius.

In the year 132 A.D, Jerusalem was leveled by Hadrian, ending any significance it may have had as the home base of Christianity. Most Jewish Christians had, in fact, died in the 70 A.D. revolt when Jerusalem was sacked and burned.

By 150 A.D. we have evidence at the Bishopic system is in place and functioning. There are bishops in Rome, Corinth, Antioch, Damascus, and Alexandria among others. That same year saw the Gnostic theologian, Valentinius, active. The Gnostic sect was one of the most troublesome Christian splinter groups.

In the year 177 A.D. we note Irenaeus as the Bishop of Lyon. I find this interesting because it shows how early the “barbarian” territories had been converted. This is also the time of Tertullian who along with Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus, were important early theologians – on the defense as apologists and on the attack against the Jews, pagans, and heretics.

With the death of Septimius Severus in 211 A.D. there was a pause in the persecution of Christians that lasted for 38 years. Then, during the time of renewed persecutions under Decius, Origen was attacking pagan thought and philosophy as an important Christian apologist.

The period from 284-324 A.D. saw the storms of Diocletian give way to the sunny days of Constantine who embraced Christianity from an early age and protected it with all of his might. As the founder of Constantinople, he created a base for the eastern empire and the future Eastern Orthodox Church.

Eusebius was a prominent theologian in the period after Constantine’s death who wrote The History of the Church.  He was Bishop of Caesarea, a town located on the coastline of northern Israel.

You can read the rest of the chronology for yourself. As you scan the entire list, try to get a sense of the time and place of the forces at work. Christianity saw some 260 years of growth before its acceptance, followed by another 150 years when it was embraced and became strong enough to outlast the empire. During the early period, the church built an administrative apparatus that rivaled or exceeded that of Rome – the same apparatus that is still in operation today.