tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6494312017035086812024-03-14T03:49:23.988-04:00Mike Anderson's Ancient History BlogHonoring the Accomplishments of AntiquityMike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.comBlogger351125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-61871640536343836892024-02-23T11:33:00.015-05:002024-02-23T11:35:36.479-05:00Book Review - The Silk Road Centurion<p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Review of <i>Silk Road Centurion</i> by Scott Forbes
Crawford. Manchester, U.K, Camphor Press, 2023, 432 pages. ISBN
978-1-78869-279-3. <b>5 Stars</b><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">If you're interested in a piece of history embedded in a
novel with a heavy dose of drama, suspense, and the pursuit of honor, I highly
recommend Scott Forbes Crawford's <i>Silk Road Centurion</i>. This story is an amalgamation
of Roman and Chinese cultures fused by threats against the principal characters
that force them to fight if they are to survive. The author is a highly skilled
storyteller who unveils shocking plot developments as the novel ends, compelling
the reader to invest his emotions with every twist and turn.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The author tells the powerful story of the Roman Centurion Manius,
who survives the total defeat of his army, only to have his life changed
forever as he fights to survive and return home. Manius and some of his fellow
soldiers are sold into slavery and transported to the Far East by a barbarian
tribe. When his companions are sold, Manius remains behind because he is
crippled. A group of Chinese prisoners join him, prompting Manius to befriend
them and learn their language. An opportunity for escape presents itself, driving
Manius to fight for freedom, and he takes refuge in a Chinese farming village.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The farmers realize that Manius has put them under threat of
attack, so they work with him to fortify the village. When the inevitable
happens, the town withstands the attack, but Manius' friend, Ox, sees his
daughter kidnapped. Manius and Ox set off to pursue the girl, battling the
elements and their enemies in a quest for love and honor.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The strengths of this book include strong character
development and the personal relationships that tie the characters together.
The noncombative farmers add their strength of will to the warrior skills of
Manius to become a formidable team. The reader takes a tense ride along as the
hero improvises his way toward survival. The cultural fusion is engaging, and
the Roman learns much from his colleagues.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">A weakness in the book is the vocabulary. The author used
his strong vocabulary skills to create elegant word pictures, but I had a problem
with the result. Some of the vocabulary is too advanced for a story set in 52
BCE. The spoken words are acceptable, but I would like to see the descriptive
words simplified. I stopped noticing the words once I acclimated to the
author's style.</p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">The book weaves together a plot that is easy to follow and
suspenseful. Anyone reader looking for that next "can't put it down
book" should pick this one up.</p><p></p>Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-34336846472785453802023-07-25T15:33:00.001-04:002023-07-25T15:33:38.956-04:00Thanks for visiting my blog<p>My blog just saw it's 2 millionth visitor. Thanks for your interest and I look forward to your next visit.</p>Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-7897021279292182942023-06-29T15:06:00.002-04:002023-06-29T15:06:59.041-04:00The Kings of Rome: What is real?Most people who read ancient history are familiar with the kings of Rome, but the republic and empire get the lion’s share of the attention and the kings are usually relegated to mere anecdotes. Still, it’s interesting to discuss the kings and their part in founding the republic. <br /><br />Why did Rome have kings, and why did they lose power in favor of the republic? We’ll discuss these questions later, but only peripherally, because the goal of this article is to talk about the kings and what we really know about them. <br /><br />The Roman kings are shrouded in myth and invention: myth because Rome wanted to create a mythology like the Greeks; invention because much of the history was embellished to support the image of Rome. Here we will discuss what is known and toss the rest. <br /><br />Our main source for information about the Roman kings is Livy Book I-V, the History of Rome. Livy’s dates were 59 BCE – 17CE, so he was writing about events up to 700 years before his time. <br /><br />Livy was the first professional historian in Rome; historians who preceded him were wealthy people who studied history as a recreational activity. Livy read Thucydides and adopted his methods of relating history as stories about people. Those stories were made interesting to hold the attention of the reader. Livy believed Thucydides’ theory that history was a series of repeatable events displaying human behavior. For example, a tyrant in 500 BCE would act the same as a tyrant in 100 BCE. That idea made it easy to transfer current facts into the past. If the current tyrant stole money from the treasury, then the tyrant, from 400 years before, must have stolen money from the treasury. <br /><br />There were certainly events that made an impression on the Roman people, who wrote them down and carried them through history, so Livy has some true facts to use. One example was the barbarian sack of Rome in 390 BCE. That story was well-known to all Romans. A treaty between Rome and Carthage dated 507 BCE was also verified, as was a solar eclipse in 404 BCE. <br /><br />We know that Rome was originally settled by two separate groups who tended goat and cattle herds, because of the differences in their pottery. They lived in huts on the top of two of the famous Roman hills: the Palatine and the Esquiline and lived a pastoral life, which continued for a century or more until the Etruscans appeared. More on that later. <br /><br />Let us review the history of the kings in chronological order. Those stories that are bolded appear to be true. <br /><br />1. Romulus (753-716), the founder of Rome, did not exist, but he was an important character in Roman mythology. The story of Romulus and Remus, with different names, was a Greek legend. There is no factual evidence about the existence of Romulus and the traditional founding date of the city, 753 BCE, was arbitrary. <br /><br />2. Numa Pompilius (715-672) established Rome’s religious traditions, built temples, and set down rules for worshiping the gods. All Romans knew him as the king who created the cult of the Vestal Virgins. Numa introduced a legal system that governed some aspects of Roman life, such as marriage and contracts. The story of the Vestal Virgin story is the only plausible one. <br /><br />3. Tullus Hostilius (672-640), the third king of Rome, was known for his focus on the military, and his expansion of Rome's territory through conquests. Tullus is also credited with the transformation of Rome into a city-state. History records that he built the first Senate House (the curia), naming it Curia Hostilia. The remaining details of his reign have not been verified. <br /><br />4. Ancus Marcius (640-616). Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome, prioritized infrastructure development. He expanded the size of the city, built its first walls, and constructed the first bridge over the Tiber River. There is no verification for this information. <br /><br />Etruscan influence <br /><br />The Etruscan civilization arose north and west of Rome in about 900 BCE. It developed into an advanced society and the Etruscans became international traders. They engaged in trade all along the west coast of Italy, using a road that crossed the Tiber near the Roman settlements, because the river was shallow there. They often traveled to the mouth of the Tiber to gather salt for their cities. The Etruscans were on good terms with the Romans until an Etruscan, Tarquinius Priscus, took the Roman kingship by force. <br /><br />5. Tarquinius Priscus (616-578), the fifth king of Rome, was born in Etruria, and he introduced Etruscan customs and influences to Rome. Around this time, Roman pottery began to change under Etruscan influence and inscriptions exist in Rome that refer to the Tarquin family. We know that the Forum was drained in around 620 BCE, probably by Tarquinius. A new sewer was constructed to keep the Forum dry, and the contractors used Etruscan construction methods. Tarquinius is credited with creating the first Roman assembly (Curate). He may also have constructed the Temple of Vesta and the royal palace. Tarquinius introduced the Etruscan traditions of divination and augury (predicting the future). Lastly, he is credited with creating the three tribes, Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, who later became the patrician class. <br /><br />6. Servius Tullius (578-535), was the sixth king of Rome, and apparently enjoyed a reputation as a regal and progressive king. Servius married his daughter of Tarquinius Priscus, and following his death, became the guardian of the kingdom before ascending to the throne. Servius Tullius is best known for social and political reforms. He is said to have established the Servian Constitution, which introduced a new system of government and social structure. The Servian Constitution divided the population into classes based on wealth, and assigned them to positions in the republican assembly, by rank. This was the first attempt, by the Senate, to distribute power more equitably and decrease the influence of the aristocracy. <br /><br />Additionally, Servius implemented several infrastructure projects, including the construction of the Servian Walls, which fortified the city of Rome and marked a significant expansion of its boundaries. We know that during his reign, the Roman army was converted to the Greek model (Hoplite) and started utilizing the Phalanx formation. Servius established the Cult of Diana, presumably to make Rome they head of an alliance with other Latin districts. Servius was assassinated by his daughter, and her husband, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, who then assumed the throne. The Servian Constitution story is plausible, the date for the hoplite conversion accurate, and the Cult of Diana story reasonable. <br /><br />7. Tarquinius Superbus (535-510), also known as Tarquin the Proud, was the seventh king of Rome, and son of Tarquinius Priscus. Tarquinius Superbus is notorious for his despotic rule. He disregarded the rights of the Roman people and governed as a tyrant. Superbus consolidated power by suppressing political dissent and implemented a system of brutal repression. In 510 BCE, a revolt against the tyrant resulted in the overthrow of the king and the entire monarchy, marking the establishment of the Roman Republic. <br /><br />The republic replaced the king with a new magistrate called the consul. Two consul positions were created, with veto power over each other, so neither could try and take control of the republic. Brutus was named the first consul of the new Republic along with Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. <br /><br />After the republic was in operation, the former king tried to regain the throne, using his ambassadors to put together a conspiracy against the Republic. Two of Brutus’ sons were part of the conspiracy and Brutus had them executed along with other conspirators, to demonstrate his loyalty to the republic. Superbus then sent an army to attack Rome, but he was repulsed at the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BCE. Brutus led the cavalry on the side of the Republic, but was killed in battle. It is likely that Brutus was a real person and likely that the former king fought to regain the throne, but details of these events have not been verified. <br /><br />After the kings <br /><br />The Republic was launched in 509 BCE with a new political system, which included the Senate, people’s assembly, and two consuls. This was 250 years after the founding of the city, but few details from this period can be confirmed. We know that in 494 BCE, the Plebeians revolted, forcing the government to create a new magistrate position, the tribune, who would represent the plebeians. Later, in about 450 BCE, the plebeians forced the government to write down the laws of Rome (The Twelve Tables) and display them in the Forum for all to see. <br /><br />The Romans went to war with the Etruscans in 405 BCE and it took them 10 years to capture the city of Veii. After many wars over many decades, the Romans defeated the Etruscans for the final time in 280 BCE, and absorbed Etruria into the republic. <br /><br />At the beginning of this article I asked, why Rome had kings and how did they lose power? <br /><br />Monarchy was the default political system in the ancient world. Greece was an exception to the rule, although Sparta had kings. In Rome, as the society developed, economic classes formed, with the wealthy at the top. Perhaps it was an oligarchy or aristocracy that became established. Then, at some point, a leader emerged and became king. This story was common place in antiquity. <br /><br />What is surprising, though, is the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of the republic. The Latin people who occupied the geography in and around the city of Rome, were a unique people, who believed in themselves and were dedicated to building a political system that involved the people. Rome was one of few republics in history and probably unique in the ancient world. <br /><br />Its people were hardworking, with an uncommon engineering sense, that drove them to build bridges, aqueducts, roads, and buildings, unlike any other civilization in ancient times. The Romans were not thinkers like the Greeks. They were doers. Of all the tribes and societies in Italy, or for that matter all of Europe, only the Romans possessed the skills and motivation to organize their world and set an example for all time. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <br /><br /> Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-80135801968305378782023-06-20T07:31:00.000-04:002023-06-20T07:31:24.239-04:00How much do we really know about Minoan culture? How much is creative imagination?<p> Guest post by Giota Detsi</p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">Truth be told, we have a lot of unanswered questions about the
Minoans<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> (Were they really called
that, for instance?).</i> However, the popularity of this civilization has
led to the creation of false stereotypes. In our search for the truth from
myths (and assumptions!) our assistants will be the usual; archaeological
finds, anthropology, genetics, Greek myths, and ancient texts. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">Truth be told, we have a lot of unanswered questions about the
Minoans<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> (Were they really called
that, for instance?).</i> However, the popularity of this civilization has
led to the creation of false stereotypes. In our search for the truth from
myths (and assumptions!) our assistants will be the usual; archaeological
finds, anthropology, genetics, Greek myths, and ancient texts. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">The name-Minoan civilization- is a product of creative
imagination.</span></i></b><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> In fact, we don’t
know what the Minoans called themselves. From the Egyptian archives, we get the
name<b><i> Keftiu</i></b> (that
reminds us of Crete) but the name of their homeland is still under discussion.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">We definitely know their origin</span></i></b><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">; at least three-quarters of their population came from the
first Neolithic farmers of western Anatolia and the Aegean, and most of the
remainder from ancient populations like those of the Caucasus and Iran. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">We know the time period that the Minoan civilization arose,
thrived, and declined</span></i></b><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">. It emerged in the 3rd
millennium BCE, reached its peak in the 2nd millennium BCE, and vanished in the
Bronze Age collapse, around 1150 BCE.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">The Minoans were international merchants and seamen</span></i></b><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">; they were highly involved in metal trading and Minoan
artifacts are found around the Mediterranean coast (much of it from Egypt and
the Levant, fewer items on the West coast). How far did they travel? We can’t
tell for sure although there are indications of Minoan presence as far as
Scandinavia. The indirect trade between the Minoans and the British islands and
the Baltic region is proven by the Welsh tin and the Baltic amber they used.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBTkNza9qZv2Tug38c-swIPmga-WlYOr7x4RhmL4dAiWq5zMXIPDkgknUFHCc6jXAyTPdE-BgAuxp6gQXC77Y3VCK6iJODEiL1DXPoCiWAiBp1s_n2ofQx2JxUx_kZlGxPm_My_H3uH3PTP4LhLGUaZABhPLjIl6F-caSu85MITpmFd_U9kFlTcvIspwPQ/s602/giota%201.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="189" data-original-width="602" height="100" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBTkNza9qZv2Tug38c-swIPmga-WlYOr7x4RhmL4dAiWq5zMXIPDkgknUFHCc6jXAyTPdE-BgAuxp6gQXC77Y3VCK6iJODEiL1DXPoCiWAiBp1s_n2ofQx2JxUx_kZlGxPm_My_H3uH3PTP4LhLGUaZABhPLjIl6F-caSu85MITpmFd_U9kFlTcvIspwPQ/s320/giota%201.png" width="320" /></a></div><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Bronze was imported to Scandinavia from the East Mediterranean.
At the same time, amber from the Baltic appeared in Minoan graves and
petroglyphs of very large sea ships have been found in today’s Sweden</span><span style="color: red; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Back in 1700 BCE, only
the Minoan ships fit that depiction.</span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">The Minoans were great craftsmen and engineers</span></i></b><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">. This is undisputed as the Minoan ceramics, jewels, artifacts,
and constructions unearthed are astonishing.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDKTcrbMEgn9BYchbqNeFeJalFhM_BO4kJJnIk0UD72UmXiKzRqE77-fQN9CCxx1Pz34WZz8mfJS_2_oBlYf1o_bR8aeFyg8HPxKIfIgfR3LEBcsKQRbYsOQ63mRJ-tnLNOwVpAivj8mUxuaslzFrNAMGGIuEUdEAyz7kijemxMRJ-Ik5Ff6AtYmPpoj31/s602/giota%202.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="537" data-original-width="602" height="285" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDKTcrbMEgn9BYchbqNeFeJalFhM_BO4kJJnIk0UD72UmXiKzRqE77-fQN9CCxx1Pz34WZz8mfJS_2_oBlYf1o_bR8aeFyg8HPxKIfIgfR3LEBcsKQRbYsOQ63mRJ-tnLNOwVpAivj8mUxuaslzFrNAMGGIuEUdEAyz7kijemxMRJ-Ik5Ff6AtYmPpoj31/w320-h285/giota%202.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";"><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";"><br /></span></i></p>This little gold
pendant from Malia (~1800 BCE), IMO, is the epitome of the Minoan micro-jewelry
and is hauntingly beautiful. If you ever visit Crete, go to the Heraklion
Museum.</span></i><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><i></i></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVCRjjelhtcJkL60MoUtQHB0bFyWaea50ShL9SWGAwr4Ye-U_L1DlPDyxp1dHVsKY7Rk4kr4OQdVehXPNX04_wSqwVueCnBAMWRGZ8fBy2_-8nFIZ6BLxA3RIKUKyAbmQbQbjU8WwpJpWHExKmRefN8GfpHricnHCHWRemxheDjT1ck7xr3xlokEeIQcXz/s602/giota%203.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="428" data-original-width="602" height="228" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVCRjjelhtcJkL60MoUtQHB0bFyWaea50ShL9SWGAwr4Ye-U_L1DlPDyxp1dHVsKY7Rk4kr4OQdVehXPNX04_wSqwVueCnBAMWRGZ8fBy2_-8nFIZ6BLxA3RIKUKyAbmQbQbjU8WwpJpWHExKmRefN8GfpHricnHCHWRemxheDjT1ck7xr3xlokEeIQcXz/s320/giota%203.jpg" width="320" /></a></i></div><i><br /></i><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">The palatial complex at
Knossos. The main Minoan cities were unique as they were built in a form of
complexes including the royal residence, shops, workshops, warehouses,
residents, and more. The interior facilities had no match for many millennia
ahead…</span></i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">There are strong indications of advanced technology</span></i></b><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">. Otherwise, how could they make items like this 1.3 inches
agate seal with microscopic carved details?<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrNNQ5vzCyMjybv-SeW6B1lxNFmLGq5EHIWSmv__M6_hOThdA4CR_NRQHBjYYybbA8lA7zFmyqN_o8CPP3FSXom1WUXThSwBXNdKZ8C5ZNEk0hT2v5J3DXIA4e-JSFHHy4XLMOLFJkOpaefgDY6cnr28KN3MayENUU50UdR5jfO2VxiXF_6qHx4aU5s5Bs/s602/giota%204.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="312" data-original-width="602" height="166" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrNNQ5vzCyMjybv-SeW6B1lxNFmLGq5EHIWSmv__M6_hOThdA4CR_NRQHBjYYybbA8lA7zFmyqN_o8CPP3FSXom1WUXThSwBXNdKZ8C5ZNEk0hT2v5J3DXIA4e-JSFHHy4XLMOLFJkOpaefgDY6cnr28KN3MayENUU50UdR5jfO2VxiXF_6qHx4aU5s5Bs/s320/giota%204.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">The Greek legends about Daedalus and his achievements (the
construction of the Labyrinth, the robot Talos, and the flying device/wings)
enhance this notion. The Greeks showed great respect for the Minoan technology
although they seemed relieved when they got rid of them!<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">The lack of deciphered scripts (apart from an interesting metric
system) doesn’t allow us to make solid conclusions about their scientific
knowledge. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">Let’s sum it up till now; the Minoans are (for sure) olive skin
and dark-haired people, travelers, merchants, craftsmen, and probably primitive
scientists. This was the easy part, as all the above facts came directly from
excavation findings or lab analysis.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";"> The discussion of topics
such as the Minoan regime, religion, and society are tricky, because the lack
of written texts and references can’t be replaced by archaeology. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">However, there are two commonly believed assumptions that
archaeology has debunked.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">Were the Minoans a peaceful people?</span></i></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">Sir Arthur Evans claimed that there weren’t any fortifications
on the island and very few weapons were found in the Minoan cemeteries, so,
they must be a peaceful society. This is not true. In the beginning of the 2nd
millennium BCE the Minoans conquered the Cycladic islands, and Greek myths talk
about fierce rivalry between them and the Mycenaeans. And there were
fortifications on the island, unearthed by Sir Arthur Evans!<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">Evans was a skilled archaeologist, applied pioneer methods, and
did remarkable, monumental work on Crete and was the single most influential
person to have shaped modern understanding of the Minoan civilization. Why did
he disguise the truth? The explanation has a political origin. The discovery of
the warlike Mycenaean world by an amateur archaeologist, Heinrich Schliemann,
launched the prehistoric Aegean to take center stage.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">At the beginning of the 20th century, the Mediterranean and
Balkans were ravaged by conflict between the weakening Ottoman Empire and
subject nations struggling to gain independence. Sir Arthur had already
experienced first-hand the terrible ethnically- and religiously-driven conflict
in the Balkans, and again on Crete, and hoped his excavation at Knossos could
reveal the oldest European civilization to be a place of peace and unity.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">The impact of Evan’s vision can be seen at its most literal at
the site of Knossos as his arbitrary “reconstitutions” are criticized by many
scholars but visitors remain enchanted by them.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b><i><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">Were the Minoans a cheerful society?</span></i></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">The truth is that the colorful frescoes and pottery depict
scenes of smiling people engaged in everyday activities. But the Minoans had a
nightmare, the earthquakes!</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVy1PxpVOz7RSNyH4s1kAip6tJL38BtShjOLpu4LylgtQZ1t7UKMQQ0MCTzdUlRaPPee7ZEieYaGWQJIPneI0prvpS7g1tn4PsNyziqYkIomosWSgR-W_zXn-9LowZQCRLI95lwWHrjQxoL7T7Sd-gipbbJTKTqu6r8k-mGI6biK1bx_ow4wkBfbrIQWo_/s446/giota%205.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="325" data-original-width="446" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVy1PxpVOz7RSNyH4s1kAip6tJL38BtShjOLpu4LylgtQZ1t7UKMQQ0MCTzdUlRaPPee7ZEieYaGWQJIPneI0prvpS7g1tn4PsNyziqYkIomosWSgR-W_zXn-9LowZQCRLI95lwWHrjQxoL7T7Sd-gipbbJTKTqu6r8k-mGI6biK1bx_ow4wkBfbrIQWo_/w400-h291/giota%205.png" width="400" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">This is Crete</span></b><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans",sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Quattrocento Sans";">, a
mountainous island of ~8,500 km2 in the middle of the Eastern Mediterranean.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">It lies within the uplifted fore-arc section of the Hellenic
subduction margin. In simple words, it is exactly where the African oceanic
plate runs into and slides beneath the continental Eurasian one. As a result,
it is the most seismically active region of Europe, the island is literally
trembling, a fact that the Minoans took seriously during construction. Their
anti-seismic constructions were ahead of their contemporaries.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">When the anti-seismic skills were not enough, the Minoans asked
their deities for protection, offering them the ultimate sacrifice, human
lives!</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #282829; font-family: "Quattrocento Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 11.5pt;">Those were the Minoans…bright and dark, victims and killers.
More than a hundred years after they entered the world of history, emerging
from mythology, they still keep a lot of secrets and surprises from us. This
only makes them even more fascinating…. </span></p><p><br /></p>Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-43296060108455965672023-05-16T12:27:00.000-04:002023-05-16T12:27:37.659-04:00My new guest post partner<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4tn3b2N9soAev1J-V5rRACPetu33A-0MxglFSW5gWqlFdjxGprM7PF6jC1dxvPjptpXNw3C2kSOQnt_5IWhnK33ye67KSlXWWWJuITf-C1MfQTyHhvumRnElTYPiujZdfIERIQZ9xZcRruo8raBNOdqZpBm7gQc8AlDLxTjS1Hdr6BpzWyEtYRBIgug/s95/Giota%20image.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="95" data-original-width="95" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4tn3b2N9soAev1J-V5rRACPetu33A-0MxglFSW5gWqlFdjxGprM7PF6jC1dxvPjptpXNw3C2kSOQnt_5IWhnK33ye67KSlXWWWJuITf-C1MfQTyHhvumRnElTYPiujZdfIERIQZ9xZcRruo8raBNOdqZpBm7gQc8AlDLxTjS1Hdr6BpzWyEtYRBIgug/s16000/Giota%20image.jpg" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;">I want to
introduce you to someone who will be contributing guest posts on this
site. Giota Detsi lives in Athens and has been writing articles about ancient
history for several years. We have worked together on the Ancient History space
on Quora since 2019.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p>As you can guess,
her focus is on Greek and Aegean history. When she isn’t writing about ancient
history, Giota is a Physics teacher.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></p>Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-23096529671104103482021-05-20T12:24:00.004-04:002021-05-20T12:30:06.897-04:00The Extraordinary History of Mesopotamia<p><span>The Greek and Roman cultures are universally
recognized as the greatest Western civilizations from the time we consider “ancient.”
Their influence was rooted in culture, which provided a foundation for modern society
and its political frameworks, and they would ultimately become models for
post-Enlightenment governments. The Greeks, as specialists in ideas, pioneered
modern philosophy, art, theater, poetry, mathematics, and science. The Romans,
as a more practical people, contributed engineering, law, and a political
system called the Republic.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>The accomplishments of Greece and
Rome cast a shadow over their predecessors, suggesting the older civilizations
were less important. That line of thinking is a serious mistake, which we will
attempt to reverse here by highlighting the importance of Mesopotamia, one of
the most important civilizations in all of human history. Mesopotamia built the
world’s first true civilization making it the father of all cultures in the West
that would follow it. Mesopotamia served as the crucible for mankind to develop
agricultural, pre-dynastic, and monarchical cultures.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>The word Mesopotamia is a collective
term for several ancient cultures located between the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers in what is now Iraq. These societies prospered as independently from
5000 BCE to 1800 BCE. Their advent was facilitated by the presence of an
alluvial plain, which provided the spark for mankind to begin irrigation farming.
An alluvial plain is a gently sloping land surface formed by sediment left from
rising and falling water levels.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--G6eM1SzeOc/YKaMGwU2CdI/AAAAAAAAhN0/eyyn0jRv7bQzPvl6MeYAzkNNPqih6FSCwCLcBGAsYHQ/s496/1%2BEuphrates.jpg.820x520_q95_crop-smart%2B2.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="276" data-original-width="496" height="223" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--G6eM1SzeOc/YKaMGwU2CdI/AAAAAAAAhN0/eyyn0jRv7bQzPvl6MeYAzkNNPqih6FSCwCLcBGAsYHQ/w400-h223/1%2BEuphrates.jpg.820x520_q95_crop-smart%2B2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><p></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">1 Alluvial
Plain Tigris River<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">Planting in an alluvial plain maid
the sowing and watering crops easier because the softness of the soil allowed
seeds to be pressed into the ground, by hand, without difficulty.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>The history of the Mesopotamian
region is too expansive to describe in a short article because its many separate
cultures existed over a span of four millennia. To simplify the story, we will
focus our discussion on Sumer, arguably the most important of the Mesopotamian
cultures. The term Sumer refers to a specific geographical region of
Mesopotamia, in the south, near the point where the Tigris and Euphrates empty
into the Persian Gulf. That geography would come to support one of the greatest
of the world’s ancient cultures.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DsUfPlL5bEM/YKaMmLxUXOI/AAAAAAAAhOA/pWBUchIs6pszRDNd9ndu61z-p7T-C0RMACLcBGAsYHQ/s826/2%2Bmeso%2Bmap%2B3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="603" data-original-width="826" height="293" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DsUfPlL5bEM/YKaMmLxUXOI/AAAAAAAAhOA/pWBUchIs6pszRDNd9ndu61z-p7T-C0RMACLcBGAsYHQ/w400-h293/2%2Bmeso%2Bmap%2B3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><span><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span><br /></span></p>The map above shows ancient Sumer and
its cities. At the time when the area
which would become Sumer was established (6500BC), the Persian Gulf extended
farther north than it does today. Baghdad and Babylon are shown as reference
points only. Neither existed during the time of Sumerian domination.</span><p></p><span></span><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>The Ubaidians were the first to exploit
the alluvial plain of Sumer and build a civilization between the great rivers.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The cities shown on the map, which
would later become the jewels of Sumer, were originally Ubaid cities. We know
this because their names predate the Sumerian language. The Ubaids developed as
a civilization of farmers, cattle raisers, and fishermen. Their craftsmen
included weavers, leatherworkers, carpenters, smiths, potters, and masons. Excavated
remains from the period include hoes, adzes, and knives, along with clay
artifacts such as sickles, bricks, loom weights, figurines, and painted
pottery. Together, these artifacts provide a record of stunning accomplishments
for a people who predated the Greeks by 4000 years.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>As the Ubaid culture matured, outsiders
from the Syrian desert region and Arabian Peninsula began to settle in their territory,
gradually taking control of the area via assimilation and military conquest. The
result was an ethnic fusion that became Sumer. By 3800 BCE, the Sumerian civilization
had reached its peak.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-eiBd81gGH1M/YKaMxaYIXGI/AAAAAAAAhOE/Ddcnbqe3NZwXVNAnuuydOiKe5ir184GAACLcBGAsYHQ/s767/3%2Bziggurat-architecture-archeyes-4%2B2.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="345" data-original-width="767" height="180" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-eiBd81gGH1M/YKaMxaYIXGI/AAAAAAAAhOE/Ddcnbqe3NZwXVNAnuuydOiKe5ir184GAACLcBGAsYHQ/w400-h180/3%2Bziggurat-architecture-archeyes-4%2B2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><span><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span><br /></span></p>The ziggurat is Mesopotamian temple and
one of the most important symbols of the Sumerian civilization. These
structures were the largest built by man at the time and represent the power
and sophistication of the great Sumerian cities. Sumerians believed that the
gods resided in their temples and so they prohibited the public from entering their
sanctuaries. The ziggurat also contained separate structures for grain storage,
recalling the time when the cities operated as theocracies and the priests served
as municipal administrators in addition to their religious duties.</span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>The first phase of the Sumerian Era
is known as the Uruk period (4100-2900 BCE), after the Sumerian city of that
name. Uruk seems to have been the cultural centre of Sumer at the time because it
housed the principal monuments of the region and exhibited the most obvious
traces of an advanced urban society. By 3500 BCE, the world’s first system of
writing, had been developed as Uruk exerted influence over the entire Near
East. The written form of the Sumerian language, called Cuneiform, was
developed through the evolution of characters from representative (pictograms)
to non-representative.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hv-cNq8anvY/YKaM_8OJFQI/AAAAAAAAhOM/ir39VTaQI4QSxJZC96iCYEo1ahOFgX7nQCLcBGAsYHQ/s248/4%2Bcuneiform.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="80" data-original-width="248" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hv-cNq8anvY/YKaM_8OJFQI/AAAAAAAAhOM/ir39VTaQI4QSxJZC96iCYEo1ahOFgX7nQCLcBGAsYHQ/s0/4%2Bcuneiform.jpg" /></a></div><span><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;">Sumer was the most agriculturally
productive region of Mesopotamia, as a result of an irrigation system which was
focused on the cultivation of barley and the pasturing of sheep for their wool.
Although it lacked mineral resources and its climate was arid, the region had
undeniable geographic and environmental advantages; it consisted of a vast
delta with a flat region transected by waterways, resulting in a potentially
vast area of cultivatable land, over which communications by river or land were
easy. Sumer became a highly populated and urbanized region in the 4th
millennium BCE, with a social hierarchy, an artisan economy, and long-distance
commerce.</p></span><p></p><span></span><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>During the Uruk period, the volume of
trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia
facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple-centered cities (with
populations of over 10,000 people), where centralized administrations employed
specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period
that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill
country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the
earliest texts.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>Following the Uruk period, an early dynastic
period evolved in Sumer. Political systems became centralized and were
controlled by a small group of individuals. This period saw the emergence of
multiple city-states, that developed and solidified over time.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>The dynastic period began in 2900 BCE
and was associated with a shift from the temple establishment headed by council
of elders led by a priest towards a more secular leader such as the legendary
patriarchal figures Dumuzid, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh, who reigned shortly
before the historical record began. The center of Sumerian culture remained in
southern Mesopotamia, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring
areas, and local Semitic groups adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>The earliest dynastic king on the
Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is
Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows,
this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and
increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared.
Both Enmerkar and Gilgamesh are credited with having built the walls of Uruk.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>In the year ~2350 BCE, the Sumerian
dynasties were overrun by Sargon, king of the Akkadian Empire. Akkad and its
capital Agate were located to the north of Sumer, just beyond Kish. The
Akkadian Empire has been labeled the first empire in human history. Sargon
built an empire that stretched from the Persian Gulf to Cyprus, but the empire
was always unstable and collapsed after two hundred years.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>The last gasp at power by the Sumerians began immediately
after the fall of the Akkadians. The 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and
Shulgi, was able to extend its power as far as southern Assyria. Ur III would
only survive for 100 years before it was absorbed into the growing Babylonian
Empire. By then, the region had become more Semitic than Sumerian, with the
resurgence of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, so the
purity of the Sumerian race was compromised. The Sumerian language continued as
a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin
was used in the Medieval period.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The Ur III period coincides with a
major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north.
Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being
compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had
been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an
arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved
salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the
Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to
the more salt-tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period
from 2100 BCE to 1700 BCE, it is estimated that the population in this area
declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within
the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively
strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. From that point on,
Sumerian would remain, only serving as a literary and liturgical language,
similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span>References</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">1. Climate Change Post. <i>Climate
change impacts in the Euphrates–Tigris Basin</i>. March 27,2021.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;">
</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">2. Arch Eyes: Timeless Architecture. Religious Architecture. <i>Urban
Design. Ziggurat Architecture in Mesopotamia</i>, April 18, 2016.<o:p style="font-size: 13pt;"></o:p></span></p>Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-32246930444128704502021-01-18T15:30:00.001-05:002021-01-18T15:31:35.577-05:00The Influence of Ancient Politics on Modern Political Systems<p><span>Most people
believe ancient political systems have had a minimal effect on politics of the
modern and postmodern world. The common belief is that the ancient world was largely
barbarian with human rights virtually non-existent, so history from that time
must be discounted. Is this a correct assumption or is there something can we
learn about politics from antiquity?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The earliest
Western civilizations were theocratic, but that model became obsolete with the
advent of warfare. Winning in battle required military leadership and the power
generated by a military leader’s success led to the evolution of kingship as the
center of civil power in the state. The next step in the evolution of
government was the monarchy, which bolted hereditary authority onto the kingship
model. Monarchies were the most common form of government before the
Enlightenment. They survived because the authoritarian state could manage the
society efficiently and, at the same time, protect its status.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>In the midst
of the monarchies permeating the ancient world, stood two models that would
foreshadow modern politics: the Greek Democracy and the Roman Republic. These governments
were true innovations in the application of liberty and human rights.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The
mountains of Greece were an opportune setting for democracy. They divided the
Greek landscape into small spaces which acted as incubators for the development
of rights-based political systems. After the Mycenean civilization ended, the
Greek peninsula descended into a dark age period, where political and social
advancement came to a halt. Then slowly, small communities, governed by the people,
began to develop. These communities blocked attempts by the wealthy to gain
power, keeping control in public hands.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The Polis evolved
to became the standard form of government across Greece after 700 BC. Each Polis
developed its own characteristics, but all featured the institutions of
democracy. In time, Athens became the most famous of the Poleis, because of its
size and influence over the Greek peninsula. Athens developed its final democratic
form after periods of tyrants and a flirtation with republicanism under Solon.
Its high point occurred during the so called “Golden Age,” in the fifth century
BC, when Pericles was its leader.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The Golden
Age was also the beginning of the end for Athens, because she would soon be
defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. The structure of the Polis had weakened
and the advent of the sophists ushered in a new focus on the individual,
replacing the cultural unity that had existed previously. It was only 60 years
after the Peloponnesian war that Philip of Macedonia (father of Alexander)
subdued the Greek peninsula and the Polis passed out of existence.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The story of
Rome was vastly different. Rome began as a hilltop community founded near a
ford in the Tiber River, in a part of Italy known as Latium. The early tribes
of Rome were farmers, married to the land. Rome was far from the sea, and its
people had no history of sea trade, so land was its most valuable asset. Early
Rome was influenced by the nearby Etruscan civilization. Its customs and
government structure were readily adopted by the Romans. Two of the early kings
of Rome were Etruscans.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Rome could
not tolerate a monarchy. It threw off the last of the kings in 509 BC and
became a republic. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica, or “thing
of the people.” This thing of the Roman people was the rights they obtained
through the people’s assembly. The republic featured an executive branch
consisting of elected magistrates, led by a pair of consuls. The legislative
branch consisted of the Senate and the people’s assembly. The assembly could
pass laws but not propose them. The Senate could propose laws but not vote on them.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>In the early
days of the republic, Rome was dominated by the wealthy patrician class.
Descendants of the three original Roman tribes, the patricians, controlled
money and power in the republic. The </span><span>Plebeians</span><span> had no rights in the beginning,
but through organized efforts, they won for themselves an expansion of their
rights. They fought for executive branch representation, so the college of
tribunes was created. They demanded written laws, so the twelve tables were
posted in the Forum. They demanded access to all elected offices and this was also
granted by the Senate over time. What made the Roman republic work was the
willingness of the Senate to extend rights to all citizens. That reality
prevented instability and allowed Rome to prosper.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>But the republic
did not survive. After 400 years, it began to crumble because of mistakes by
the Senate, inefficient government, and territorial expansion, which required a
large army. Until the end of the second century BC, Rome had a citizen army;
farmers put down their implements and went to war.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>In 107 BC, Gaius
Marius, the leading general in the republic, created a professional army. This
caused the soldiers to shift their loyalty from the Senate to their commander. Now
any general, with a lust for power, could bend the army to his will and overthrow
the government. That fear became a reality when Julius Caesar made himself permanent
dictator, leading to the collapse of the republic.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The founding
fathers of the United States knew the stories of Athens and Rome. Most could
speak Latin and Greek, and they had read the history of antiquity in the
original language. When it came time to create the American Constitution, they
thought long and hard about the design of their new government. The United
States would be the first “new” nation in the last thousand years of Western
civilization, but what form should its government take?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The founders
looked to the models of Greece and Rome as templates. In a short time, the
Greek model was rejected. The polis was small enough so that citizens could
attend meetings of the assembly and vote. This was not possible in a territory
as large as the thirteen colonies. The new government had to be built on representation;
elected officials representing citizens.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;">The founders
had the experience of the colonial governments to draw upon and they understood
the British Constitution. They decided that adapting the Roman republic to
America would be the most logical approach. During the Constitutional
Convention, the design of each branch of government was debated at length.
There was early agreement on the Legislature which would contain an upper class
of “elders” and a people’s assembly. There was a long negotiation about how the
legislature should be constituted and how the representatives should be
elected. A balance was reached by having two senators per state and an assembly
determined by population distribution. Senators would be elected by the states
and representatives directly by the people.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The
executive branch was also subject of a lengthy debate. How would the chief
magistrate (president) be elected and for how long? In the end, the delegates
chose a presidential term of four years with the president elected by the
states.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The founders
looked at the new government as a republic of state republics. The states would
share power with the Federal government with no overlap of jurisdictions. The
founders believed that too much democracy was dangerous: that the public could
be influenced to vote for a tyrant. Better to have the senior legislative
chamber and the president elected by the states. They also battled over the
power of the Federal government. Some wanted it to be small, only functioning
in areas inappropriate for states, like treaties with foreign governments.
Others wanted it to have more power, thinking that professional politicians
from the elite class would be the best managers of the country.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>America’s
founders learned much from the ancient governments of Greece and Rome. They could
read about the impact of citizens as direct participants in government. They
had the luxury of analyzing systems that failed so they could avoid those same
problems.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The debate about
the structure of the American government has continued from the time of the
Constitution until the present day. During the passage of time, the Federal
government has grown exponentially, as the demand for its programs have
increased, the courts have accommodated the shifting of the role of the Federal
government to one as caretaker for society, and the American social culture has
changed enormously. There is no playbook for how to adapt a political system to
these types of changes, but we have history to guide for the direction we have
to take now.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The
Enlightenment made us believe that individual rights were important. That
concept allowed democracies to take over the world as the default political
system. The ancients taught us about the value of tradition as applied to
changing societies. Tradition has to be used as a guide for moving forward,
because too much change creates instability. The French Revolution warned us
what can happen when all traditions are discarded.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Why is the
study of ancient political systems important? The answer lies in the fact that
all human societies are experiments in a public morality built by a consensus
of the individual moralities of their citizens.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 107%;">Man did not evolve
to live among strangers; he evolved to live among small kinship groups. There
are no human socio-psychological mechanisms to cope with living in societies,
so each iteration becomes a unique model. The brilliance of the ancients is
that their ideas can accommodate the postmodern society. The ancients
understood human nature well enough to create models that are timeless and
function at any time and place.<o:p style="font-size: 13.5pt;"></o:p></span></p>Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-70602274785099998052020-10-12T10:41:00.000-04:002020-10-12T10:41:11.635-04:00A Unique Classical Event<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-qkZg-kC8yb4/X4RqSSRMorI/AAAAAAAAevM/1qfU6ecOOj85f2UtKjWCSScwtKjOuVGjgCLcBGAsYHQ/s1920/speakers%2Bshowcase_cw_oct2020.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1576" data-original-width="1920" height="358" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-qkZg-kC8yb4/X4RqSSRMorI/AAAAAAAAevM/1qfU6ecOOj85f2UtKjWCSScwtKjOuVGjgCLcBGAsYHQ/w436-h358/speakers%2Bshowcase_cw_oct2020.jpg" width="436" /></a></div><br /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Only the most highly respected members of
society were invited to these parties, called Symposiums, where the best minds
met to discuss all manner of things, from the nature of love to the origins of
the universe… and some ideas too dangerous to share in the streets!</span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Scenes like this were common in Ancient Greece,
when philosophy, learning, and good conversation were highly respected, and
folks were expected to understand and participate fully in their
democracy. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">But the tradition has faded away — modern
“symposiums” are usually nothing more than glorified trade conferences, with
none of the philosophy and mental investigation of a true Symposium. Classical
Wisdom aims to bring back this storied ancient tradition!</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">To do this in our modern world, we have created
a two-day online event, consisting of exciting presentations, a wine tasting,
followed by a panel discussion. Attendees can join in whenever they like and
ask questions. They will also receive full recordings of the event afterwards;
in case they miss something or want to re-watch. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">This is a Classics event like no other! </span><a href="https://bonnerprivatewines.com/classical-wisdom-symposium/user/18/?utm_source=ClassicalWisdom&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=CWW" style="background-color: transparent;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">While the wine box
option</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> will only be available
until October 14th, we will be offering a wine tasting with recommendations for
those who are interested. But the best thing of all is that we’ve managed to
gather some of the greatest thinkers on the classical world for one fantastic
weekend. Attendees can listen to them speak Live as well as directly ask
questions.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">We’d like to think of it as an antidote to 2020 - an opportunity
to get perspective and historical viewpoints on current events as well as
philosophical insights to thrive in even the most challenging of circumstances.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Choose your ticket (one day or two-day pass)
here: </span><a href="https://classicalwisdom.simpletix.ie/e/59069" target="_blank"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">https://classicalwisdom.simpletix.ie/e/59069</span></a><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">You can use this Promo code and get 40% OFF: <b>CWW2020</b></span><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-31430041628065608912020-08-19T08:55:00.005-04:002020-08-19T08:57:17.212-04:00What Happens to Democracy?<p><span>One of the
more intriguing questions about politics today is “What happens after
democracy?” Some ask this question out of curiosity; some out of fear. The
fearful are concerned that democratic governments have become unstable.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>In our 21</span><sup>st</sup><span>
Century world, democracies predominate. This is explained by the fact that
democracies, and their partner capitalism, have been more efficient at
delivering goods and services than other government forms, making them the preferred
model in the modern and postmodern world.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Lately,
democracy is showing its age, and its governments are less able to “govern.”
Tribalism, generated by ideological polarization prevents legislatures from
acting for the good of the people. Candidates are selected by the elite class
to perpetuate elite control. Lobbyists, under control of the elites, replace
the will of the people. The people are less engaged and easily influenced by
elite messaging.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>How to we
fit the current situation into the history of politics? A logical place to
start is the work of Polybius.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Polybius was
a Greek historian, who lived from 200 BC to 118 BC. He was taken as a hostage
by the Romans in 167 BC and was held in Rome for 17 years. Polybius later
become an associate of Scipio Aemilius, the Roman general who defeated the
Carthaginians in the Third Punic War. As an observer of Rome and Greece,
Polybius wrote about political systems: their origin, structure, and stability.
He created a cycle of governments to describe the forces that change societies
from one form to another.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The cycle is
Monarchy – Kingship – Tyranny – Aristocracy – Oligarchy – Democracy.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Monarchies appear
by the natural and unaided rise in power of individuals who impress their
people with leadership skills. As long as man has lived in groups, they have
been led by those who, by intelligence or charisma, rise to the top. Monarchies
first appeared after the beginning of agriculture in 3000 BC, because a
hierarchical structure was needed to govern large groups of human beings. Monarchies
were the government of choice for 4500 years until the Enlightenment. Some
monarchies become kingships; a transition that occurred when leaders began to
govern by fear rather than the approval of their people.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>When kings
became tyrants, they fell and were replaced by an aristocracy made up of
wealthy and powerful elites, who exerted control to preserve their status. In
time, the aristocracy saw its power concentrated in few leaders, and transitioned
to an oligarchy (rule of few). The oligarchy fell when the people became tired
of unjust rule. To replace the oligarchies, people demanded democracies.
Democracies prosper as long as traditions, and commitment to justice, remain
strong. When those characteristics die away, the cycle moves back to a
monarchy. The people replace an unworkable system with one person they can
trust.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>If you think
these concepts are fanciful and unrealistic, consider the following examples.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>In Ancient
Greece, the </span><span>Mycenaean</span><span> kings were replaced by an aristocracy, which became an
oligarchy before it was a democracy. Tyrants popped up a from time to time,
during the period of aristocracies, when the aristocracies failed to govern.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Ancient Rome
was first ruled by monarchs, who became kings and then tyrants. They were
replaced by an aristocracy (the patricians), who transitioned to an oligarchy. Rome
never achieved a transition to democracy because dictators took control and created
an empire.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>The United
States, as a child of the Enlightenment, did not have to endure a monarchy. It
started as an aristocracy, transitioned to an oligarchy, during the time of the
Federalists, and then became a democracy.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Polybius
created his theory before the concept of collectivism/socialism developed, so
there is no socialist model in the cycle. The most important socialist systems,
Russia and China, developed from feudal systems so they don’t fit conveniently there.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>Cuba serves
as an interesting example. Castro overthrew a dictator (tyrant) to gain power.
The step to aristocracy was interrupted by his revolution. At the time, Cuba
was weak economically, so one might consider it a feudal state. Castro was
propped up by money from the Soviet Union for decades. Without that help, he
would not have been able to implement his Communist model.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span>If we trust
Polybius and imagine what would happen if some democracies fail over the next
decades, their replacement will feature concentrated power, because concentrated
power can govern more efficiently than a democracy. The replacements will
authoritarian leaders or dictators.</span></p>Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-44121267606044898322020-03-16T08:55:00.000-04:002020-03-16T08:55:18.176-04:00The Ancient History Hall of Fame<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Its fun and interesting to speculate about who would be in
the Ancient History Hall of Fame if there were such a place, and I admit that building
a list like this is subjective. Fame plays a significant role here, making it
difficult to include those who are generally unknown to the public. My sense of
antiquity is that individuals whose fame has endured over the millennia were
the most important. My list omits the infamous whose misdeeds are their claim
to fame.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To invoke a baseball analogy, there are a group of ancients
that I will label first ballot hall of famers. That is individuals who would be
on everyone’s list and would never have their selection questioned. That list
includes,<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Alexander the Great, Aristotle, Caesar Augustus, Cleopatra, Confucius,
Constantine the Great, Hannibal, Herodotus, Homer, Jesus, Julius Caesar, Moses,
Saul (Paul) of Tarsus, Pericles, Plato, Siddhartha Gautama, Socrates, Solon,
and Thucydides. That’s nineteen.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the second tier I would place <span style="color: #333333; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Aeschylus, Aristophanes, Attila the Hun, St.
Augustine, Demosthenes, Euclid, Euripides, Hammurabi, Hippocrates, Nebuchadnezzar
II, Pindar, Sappho, Scipio Africanus, Sophocles, Thales, Virgil, Xerxes, and
Zoroaster. Another eighteen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #333333; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">My
third tier would contain Archimedes, Cato, Empedocles, Galen, Justinian I Mithridates
VI, Ovid, Plutarch, Ramses II, and Spartacus, making the list total 47.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #333333; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Do we
add more and, if so, by what criteria? A structured approach would dictate
selection by category of accomplishment. For example, the Greeks made
significant contributions in philosophy, science, drama, and poetry, so we
should choose one or more from each of these. Right? But, trying to build a
list like this, and limiting its size, gets one into trouble quickly. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #333333; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">It is
generally thought that the four greatest dramatists of all time were
Shakespeare, Aristophanes, Aeschylus, and Euripides. If all three Greeks are in
a class with the Bard, shouldn’t that make them hall of famers?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #333333; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Philosophy
is tougher still. You start with Plato and Aristotle and then it makes sense to
add Socrates and Thales. Who else? There are so many candidates – Zeno,
Epicurus, Anaximander, Heraclitus, etc. </span><b><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There are two groups I have not selected from: those too
obscure to be eligible and those who didn’t quite make the grade for a short
list. In the first group I include Ashkoka (Indian emperor of the Maurya
Dynasty), Hashesput (fifth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt), Inhotep
(a Polymath circa 2650 B.C.), and Sargon the Great (Akkadian king of 2300
B.C.).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The second group contains Agrippa (important as Augustus
right hand man) but not quite good enough, Thermistocles (admiral of the
Athenian Navy), Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Tacitus. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Now let’s move on to a few more who <u>are</u> worthy. There
are seven in this group: Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Livy, Leonidas, Lysander, Isocrates,
and Cicero. The Golden Age of the empire is an important period and Trajan and
Marcus are its bookends. Trajan reigned from 98-117 A.D, stabilizing the empire
and initiating a period of calm lasting 82 years. Marcus Aurelius was the last
of the dynasty and is important for his reflective personality and stoic
philosophy. It was a sad irony that Marcus hated wars and yet was fated to
fight in them for almost his entire reign. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If you have Herodotus and Thucydides on the list you have to
have Livy -- Rome’s greatest historian. We are all the poorer because so many
of his books were lost.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In my view, you can’t construct an Ancient’s Hall of Fame without
Spartans, so I have included two: Leonidas and Lysander. Leonidas is famous for
one single event, his defense at Thermopylae. That story has resonated around
the world ever since as an example of courage, honor, and devotion to the
cause. Leonidas has a unique place on the list because his contribution
occurred during a single event that cost him his life, rather than
contributions over a lifetime. Lysander was Sparta’s greatest admiral, largely
responsible for ending the Peloponnesean War in Sparta’s favor. <o:p></o:p></div>
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I thought of including Lycurgus, architect of the Spartan
political system, but we’re not sure a single person with that name existed.<o:p></o:p></div>
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I include Isocrates, at risk, because some would call him
obscure. He labored under the shadow of Plato but his contribution to the
development of educational systems that followed him is unequalled. He was
Athens’ greatest orator and had a great influence over the politics of is day.<o:p></o:p></div>
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So now we reach the end with Cicero, who as a philosopher,
orator, statesman, lawyer, and political theorist had a significant impact on late
Republican Rome. Cicero’s Latin prose was unequalled as he built a Latin
philosophical vocabulary by translating the Greek. His letters, when discovered
during the 14<sup>th</sup> century, helped launch the renaissance, through an
emerging interest in the writings of antiquity. Cicero’s humanist philosophy
influenced the renaissance, while his republicanism influenced the founders of
the United States.<o:p></o:p></div>
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We could add more women and make the list longer. Perhaps
someone will want to provide some names. We have Cleopatra and Sappho on the
list. Others, including Augustus’ wife Luvilla And Leonidas’ wife Gorgo come to
mind. Unfortunately, women didn’t receive the publicity in the ancient world
that men did and their lack of access to power and status made it much harder for
them to become famous.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Now we have a complete list of 54 – an odd number and no more
than an arbitrary stopping point based on subjective criteria. It’s too bad we
have so few Hall of Famers like them today. In this modern age, power and money
have subverted wisdom and knowledge.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-68840778369413903592019-08-25T12:47:00.000-04:002019-08-25T16:17:45.140-04:00Crossing the Rubicon<br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Crossing the Rubicon is a piece of history that made its
way into American popular culture --the saying describing a situation where
there is no turning back. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The historical event that created the saying occurred on January 10<sup>th</sup>,
49 BC, when Julius Caesar led a single Roman legion across the Rubicon River in
Northern Italy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Rubicon River in Eastern Italy and the Arno River in Western
Italy formed the northern boundary of Republican Italy in the 1st Century BC,
separating it from Cisalpine Gaul. Roman law required that that only city magistrates
from Rome lead an army south of the two rivers and Pro-consuls who had military
control of the provinces were not allowed to enter with an army. Violation of
this law, meant the loss of <i>Imperium </i>to command troops and was an act of
treason.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Caesar, through his agents in the Senate, which included
the Tribune Antony, tried to negotiate an accommodation with Pompey and the Senate.
Caesar requested a new provincial assignment in order to retain <i>Imperium</i>
and avoid prosecution for bribery and theft in office. The Senate was unwilling
to meet his demand and circumstances began to move toward a confrontation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A resolution was introduced on the Senate requiring that both
Caesar and Pompey give up their commands as an attempt to satisfy both factions.
Caesar was in favor, but a small group of Senators vetoed the resolution because
they suspected a trap. The Senate then introduced a resolution proposing that
two of Caesar’s legions be sent to Syria. Pompey favored this attempt to declaw
Caesar and Caesar complied.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In December 50 BC a second resignation resolution was
proposed in the Senate, requiring Caesar to give up his command without
requiring Pompey to do so. This was later amended, requiring both men to give
up their posts simultaneously. The vote was 370 for and 22 against. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This action by the Senate was immediately rendered useless when a panic
followed. Rumors started that Caesar was already matching on Rome, so the Senate
granted Pompey command for the defense of the city. A resolution was introduced
placing a fixed date on Caesar’s resignation, but this was vetoed by Antony.
Then, on January 7th 49 BC, an emergency decree was passed, legalizing Pompey’s
authority and requested that all major officials move to protect the state.
Antony was forced to flee Rome or suffer penalties under this martial law. The
Senate’s final act in this drama was to assign new governors for Gaul, replacing
Caesar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The Senate’s behavior convinced Caesar that diplomatic
efforts were no longer possible and a show of force was necessary, so he crossed
the Rubicon on January 10<sup>th</sup>. He divided his legion into two columns:
one headed for Arretium and the other Ariminum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The speed with which Caesar advanced astonished the Senate
and Pompey, who were not convinced he would try to press an attack with one
legion. By day three, Arretium had already fallen. Rather than resisting
Caesar, the locals along his route opened their doors to him and even expelled
Pompey’s garrisons from their territory. Surprised at this, Pompey retreated
south to Capua, leaving Rome unprotected and forcing his allies in the Senate
to abandon the city and join him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Caesar arrived in Rome the first week of March with six legions.
He had accumulated additional troops on his way south based on loyalty to his
cause. There was some resistance, on the way, but little bloodshed because his
enemies had melted away. Caesar impressed all with his leniency toward those
who opposed him by setting them free.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br />Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-60327958302857663912019-08-21T21:27:00.000-04:002019-08-21T21:27:09.692-04:00Sorry about going DarkThe blog has been down for most of July and all of August until today. The reason was that my site license did not get renewed correctly and the site was suspended. All is well now.Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-81861812414117245642018-07-10T12:27:00.000-04:002018-07-10T12:27:48.401-04:00Capitalism in the Roman Republic<br />
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Capitalism is an economic system in which
wealth, and the means of producing wealth, are privately owned and controlled
rather than state-owned and controlled. Through capitalism, the land, labor,
and capital are owned, operated, and traded by private individuals or
corporations and investments, distribution, income, production, pricing and
supply of goods, commodities and services are determined by voluntary private
decision in a market economy.</span><span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A division of labor has always existed in
human society. As a population grows, demand for goods and services forces the
development of new skills. Capitalists show up in societies as salesmen or
entrepreneurs who are clever at buying and selling, so they take opportunities
for profit when they present themselves.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">To hear modern historians tell it, capitalism began with
the Enlightenment in the late 16<sup>th</sup> century. The break from the
Catholic Church and authoritarian monarchs allowed people to exert their
individual rights and take control of their lives. This new freedom, allowed citizens
to form their own businesses, go to market, and make a profit. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The focus for today’s scholars may be on this new-found freedom
of the Enlightenment, but that was not the origin of capitalism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">When Rome began it was strictly an agrarian society. The
only asset considered valuable was land. In Roman society, wealthy patricians
controlled the land and those without wealth or land were the Plebeians.
Patricians considered mercantilism beneath their dignity and refused to engage
in such low enterprise. Cicero once referred to all salesmen as liars. <br />
<span style="color: red;"><br />
</span><span style="background: white;">As Roman trade evolved, laws were passed
that prohibited senators from investing in shipping. That left the Plebeians to
control that market. The same story happened with the Roman civil service. As
it grew, the new positions were given to the lower class, and the resulting
economic environment fostered the growth of a new middle class (the Knights). The
first “businessmen” were called Publicans. They were employed by the state to
manage public contracts: to collect taxes, manage mining companies, and oversee
road construction. Contracts were awarded to bidders at auction and their
duration was five years.</span><br />
<span style="color: red;"><br />
</span><span style="background: white;">During the Punic Wars Publicans built
ships for the Roman Navy and equipped the Roman Army. In 215 BC, three Publican
contractors were censured because they provided financing to Spanish tribes,
who were Rome’s enemy at the time. They scuttled their ships and sued the
Republic for reimbursement.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="background: white;">The Senate chose to utilize the Knights
commercially, instead of creating a civil service, but the power of the Knights
grew, and they were able to exert great influence as a class. In 169 BC, the
censor Tiberius Gracchus cancelled all Publican contracts because of
corruption, but the Knights rebelled and accused him of treason against the
state. Tiberius was acquitted, but all Rome now understood the power of the
middle class.</span><br />
<span style="color: red;"><br />
</span><span style="background: white;">By the fall of the Republic there were
hundreds of corporations selling shares to investors. Manufacturing and trades
flourished: including furniture making, leatherwork, weaving, metalworking, stone
working, and food processing.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Many of the business terms we are familiar with today were
in use in Roman times, including insurance, banks making loans, individuals owning
shares in companies, competition, hoarding commodities to influence prices,
investments, lawsuits, and monetary speculation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">There is one major difference, worth noting, between capitalism
in the time of Rome and the Enlightenment Period. There was no industrial
revolution in Roman times because there were no machines available for mass
production. Those machines gave the Enlightenment a black eye because they led to
worker exploitation and harsh working conditions. As a direct result, socialism
was developed as an alternative to the evil capitalistic model.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This story suggests that capitalism is the default behavior
in human society. The combination of a large and diverse population and the
need for skill differentiation to efficiently supply goods and services to
people, generates a market model.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-22336426038558864802017-12-26T20:15:00.000-05:002017-12-26T20:15:35.225-05:00Review of Hannibal by Patrick N. Hunt<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">My usual reference for Hannibal’s campaign against the
Romans (218-202) is <i>The Punic Wars</i> by
Brian Caven, published in 1992. Of course, we also have Polybius and Livy who
were closer to the action, but not contemporary to it. Polybius was born in 200
BC and was brought the Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. He lived there 17 years and
was an eyewitness to the Third Punic War (149-146 BC). Polybius eventually
published a history of all three Punic Wars, but most of his work is lost. Livy,
starting in 30 BC, used Polybius and others in his own his own account of the
time of Hannibal, looking backward 200 years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Now we have a new biography of <i>Hannibal</i> by Patrick Hunt,
archaeologist and historian from Stanford University. Dr. Hunt’s book equals and exceeds previous work on the
subject. His scholarship is meticulous and thorough, and the story of
Hannibal’s life is told as a straightforward narrative without unnecessary
decoration. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hannibal Barca was one of the greatest military commanders
of all time, so his story is essential reading for anyone interested in military
history. Son of one of the leaders of Carthage, and born after the Carthaginian
defeat in the First Punic War, Hannibal came to power quickly. Accompanying his
father Hamilcar and brother-in-law Hasdrubal on an expedition to Spain, he had
to tolerate the drowning of his father and the assassination of Hasdrubal. Now
commander and chief of the Punic Army at 26, Hannibal took control his own
destiny and became the central player in the Second Punic War.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Most of us have heard the story of Hannibal’s crossing of
the Alps in the fall of 218 BC which was a prelude to his attack on the Italian
Peninsula. He defeated the Roman Army so soundly, in a series of battles, that
the Romans were forced to fight a war of attrition instead of trying to defeat
him head on head. Hannibal was loose in the Italian Peninsula for 15 years until
he was recalled to Carthage in 203. He lost the Battle of Zama to a Roman army
under the command of Scipio Africanus in 202 BC, and this defeat ended the
second Punic War.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Professor Hunt documents Hannibal’s later years after he
was exiled from Carthage in 195 BC. Hannibal acted as a military adviser to
some heads of state in Asia Minor, but when betrayed to the Romans in 183 BC,
he took poison to avoid captivity. The author goes to some length to lay our
Hannibal’s legacy and influence, showing us why the general is one of the most significant
figures during the age of the Roman Republic.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">I enthusiastically recommend this book to anyone who wants
to examine Hannibal’s life and his battles with the Romans. You will come away with
a thorough perspective on the man and the general.</span></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-8201524044463438272017-12-07T09:06:00.000-05:002017-12-07T09:06:14.587-05:00Review: The Landmark Julius Caesar<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 17.3333px;">This is a review of a new book on Julius Caesar, published in The Wall Street Journal December 1, 2017. <b>My bolded sections</b>.</span></div>
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<i><span style="border: 1pt none; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt; padding: 0in;">By</span></i><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"> <i><span style="border: 1pt none; padding: 0in;">James Romm</span></i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border: 1pt none; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt; padding: 0in;">It’s astounding </span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">that so few fans of martial sagas like “The Lord of the Rings” and “Game of Thrones” have found their way to the narratives of the Greek and Roman historians. In these works, too, one finds apocalyptic battles, ruthless political struggles and bizarre twists of fortune. They may lack dragons, but their intensity is amplified by the knowledge that the events they describe really happened. The story of Julius Caesar’s rise to power in the 50s and 40s B.C., first through the conquest of Gaul (modern France) and then by whirlwind campaigns throughout the Mediterranean, is as compelling as any televised drama, and indeed HBO and the BBC built the first season of their series “Rome” around exactly these events.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><b>Who would prefer modern-day dilutions and screen adaptations to the surviving firsthand accounts of such episodes, narrated by great writers? </b>Just about everyone, it seems, and perhaps the reasons are not so hard to find after all. The chronological gulf that separates us from the Roman world, and even more from the Greeks, can render the primary narratives blurry and indistinct. Opacities of nomenclature, geography, units of currency, measurements of distance and a dozen other pitfalls stand in the modern reader’s path. As a teacher I am always dismayed when undergraduates declare themselves bored by the Greek historian Thucydides, whose vividness as a reporter of the catastrophic Peloponnesian War ought to quicken their pulse. Despite my best efforts, some are simply unable to part the veil of time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub</span></div>
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<i><span style="border: 1pt none; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt; padding: 0in;">Pantheon, 793 pages, $50</span></i><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Similar frustrations in teaching ancient history to disengaged students led independent scholar and businessman Robert Strassler to conceive the Landmark Ancient Histories. Beginning with “The Landmark Thucydides,” published by the Free Press in 1996, Mr. Strassler showed his determination to leave no reader behind. He supplied detailed maps on nearly every third page of text and clear, full annotation that removed potential stumbling blocks. Headings kept readers oriented in time and space, as did brief summaries, running down the book’s generously wide margins, of each stage of the action. Well-curated photographs of objects and sites turned a mere encounter with the Peloponnesian War into an immersion in classical Greece. Appendix essays set new standards for readability and point. An opening chronology laid out the events of the text in sequence, and a closing index, done in unprecedented detail, provided a precise means of finding whatever item one might be looking for.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Subsequent installments in the Landmark series added new features and enriched the old, as Mr. Strassler, with the help of the editors for each volume (this writer among them), tackled the major Greek historians in turn: Herodotus, Arrian and Xenophon. Now, with “The Landmark Julius Caesar, ” the series arrives for the first time at the gates of Rome and deals with a figure who is far better known—in part through his own writings—than any Greek or Macedonian. The huge volume of evidence surviving from this book’s time span, the years 58 to 45 B.C., posed a challenge for the Landmark series. Under the expert guidance of volume editor Kurt Raaflaub, with oversight from Mr. Strassler (who remains series editor), the challenge has been met with stunning success.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">The tireless devotion of both Mr. Strassler and Mr. Raaflaub, professor emeritus of classics at Brown University, is evident right from this book’s table of contents. Caesar’s best-known work, the “Gallic War,” would by itself have made up a full and satisfying volume, but “The Landmark Julius Caesar” also gives us four other narratives, descriptions of subsequent campaigns, to make up the whole of what scholars term the Corpus Caesarianum, the body of contemporaneous accounts of Caesar’s wars. These five works, only two of which are Caesar’s own compositions, have not appeared together, in English, since the early 18th century, even though their dovetailing time frames makes the set a continuous whole. To see them here between one set of covers is truly inspiring.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">We begin in Gaul, with perhaps the most famous sentence in Latin literature, Caesar’s marvelously low-key “All Gaul is divided into three parts.” The “Gallic War” relates, in Caesar’s own words, the series of campaigns (58-52 B.C.) by which Gallic tribes were either brought over to Rome’s cause or defeated, one by one, then finally smashed in the decisive siege of a collective resistance at Alesia <b>(See my post on this)</b>... Aulus Hirtius, one of Caesar’s officers, composed a final segment to the “Gallic War” that covers some mopping-up operations in 51 and 50 B.C., bringing us to the next work, the “Civil War,” also written by Caesar himself.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">The “Civil War” begins at the start of 49 B.C. with attempts by the Roman senate to strip away Caesar’s power and position, by which they felt increasingly threatened. In response, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his army, declaring his intention to march on Rome. The senate opposition fled across the Adriatic with their champion, Pompey Magnus, Caesar’s great rival in military brilliance. At Pharsalus <b>(I also have a post on this)</b>, in northern Greece, Caesar put them to rout. The “Civil War” closes with a cliffhanger as Caesar, pursuing the defeated Pompey to Egypt, becomes enmeshed in a local civil war and besieged in Alexandria with his new ally and lover, Cleopatra.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">That event marks the endpoint of Caesar’s own writings, but members of his staff, their names unknown to us (and their styles recognizably poorer), took up the tale. The “Alexandrian War” describes the daring moves by which Caesar broke the Egyptian siege, then swept through the eastern Mediterranean, Greece and Italy in late 48 and 47 B.C., chasing opponents and firming control. After spending only a few weeks in Rome, at the end of 47 B.C., Caesar left for North Africa to deal with the unreconciled Pompeians Scipio and Cato, and the narrator of the “African War” follows him there. Despite the opposition of a local potentate, Caesar was again victorious and returned to Rome in the summer of 46 B.C. to a hero’s welcome and a grant, by a now compliant senate, of unprecedented power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">A final campaign, described in the “Spanish War,” brought Caesar to Spain to deal with new foes, Pompey’s sons Gnaeus and Sextus, in late 46 and 45 B.C. The Corpus Caesarianum ends abruptly in April of 45 B.C., with the text of the “Spanish War” breaking off in mid-sentence. But the Pompeys had by then been defeated and Caesar’s invincibility made plain to all.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">The denouement of Caesar’s story was not recounted by any surviving chronicler, but it is well known today, thanks to Plutarch and Shakespeare. Once he had returned to Rome with his fiercely loyal army, Caesar’s political future posed a dilemma to what was still, in name at least, a republic. Some wanted him made king, but monarchy stood in ill repute in Rome, so he was instead appointed dictator for life, a marginally constitutional office. Senatorial foes, defeated once in Caesar’s war against Pompey but pardoned and restored to office, disliked the appointment and also feared the power that Caesar might accrue from a planned attack on the Parthians (based in modern Iran). Just before the launching of that campaign, in the spring of 44 B.C., they assassinated him.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">To edit and annotate such a diverse collection of narratives, produced by several different hands, describing intricate military maneuvers and spanning three continents in their ambit, was, by any measure, a Herculean task. Mr. Raaflaub has surpassed even the previous high standards of the Landmark series by supplying full, expert and wide-ranging notes, almost all containing his own elucidations rather than showy scholarly references. This achievement is amplified by more than 40 appendix essays, all commissioned by Mr. Raaflaub and several written by him, addressing all sorts of literary, military and biographical questions. The amplitude of these essays is such that the volume prints only four essential ones and directs the reader to a website for the others. The dimensions of the book simply could not accommodate all the knowledge it seeks to convey.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">It’s rare for a scholar of Mr. Raaflaub’s standing to annotate an ancient text translated for Latinless readers, and still more rare for him to translate it himself, as Mr. Raaflaub has done here. As its holiday-season debut implies, “The Landmark Julius Caesar” is his gift, and Mr. Strassler’s, to history readers everywhere and even to professional historians, who will find much original research between its covers. Among his other devoted efforts, Mr. Raaflaub, together with University of Illinois classicist John Ramsey, has made painstaking calculations of the distances and rates of travel involved in Caesar’s movements, such that the dates accompanying the narrative could be given not just by season (as in Caesar’s own reportage) but by month and, in some cases, by day. Such precision, if not something that readers would demand, adds to the steadying sense of authority and factuality that is the trademark virtue of the Landmark series.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">History buffs, classicists, fans of television’s “Rome”: Do not pass up this gift. Whether you revere Caesar as a military genius or despise him as a butcher and a tyrant, “The Landmark Julius Caesar” is an indispensable way to read his writings and understand his rise to power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">—Mr. Romm is the editor of “The Landmark Arrian: The Campaigns of Alexander” and the editor and translator of “How to Die: An Ancient Guide to the End of Life,” to be published next month.</span></i></div>
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<b style="color: #333333; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17.3333px;">I own the Landmark Xenophon and can testify to the quality of the series.</b></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-4997942880843425942017-12-02T06:56:00.000-05:002017-12-02T06:56:17.731-05:00Mike Anderson’s new book<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt;">I have my first book coming out next week.
Three years in the making, it’s different from the typical focus of this blog. The
title of the book is, <i>The Progressive
Gene: How Genetics Influence the Morality of the Left</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NVXvL-mwWKU/WiKUgip9FhI/AAAAAAAAYsA/Vnd5HtaY5EgTmja_el2JBsP_8zqSam9owCLcBGAs/s1600/cover%2Bfinal%2Bfinal%2Bfront.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1231" data-original-width="841" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NVXvL-mwWKU/WiKUgip9FhI/AAAAAAAAYsA/Vnd5HtaY5EgTmja_el2JBsP_8zqSam9owCLcBGAs/s320/cover%2Bfinal%2Bfinal%2Bfront.jpg" width="218" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">As you know, I’ve been talking about
antiquarian political systems for ten years: Mostly Roman and Greek with a few
others thrown in (e.g. Mesopotamia, Etruria). We all understand that the Roman
and Greek governments were revolutionary, fundamental to the development of Western
Civilization, and they influenced all political systems that followed. The
American political system was originally a copy of the Roman Republic, with the
additional feature of states included in the federation.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt;">There has been significant research done in the
past decade around political morality (party preference) and the factors that
influence our choice. For example, research has shown that there are physical
differences in the brains of Liberals and Conservatives. Liberals have a more
developed area of the brain that handles decision making and choices.
Conservatives have a more developed area of the brain that processes threats
(fight or flight). The conclusions drawn from this are that Liberals desire
change partly because they are comfortable with it. Change does not bother
them. Conservatives are more cautious because risk is always on their mind, so
they tend to opt for the status quo. These characteristics are genetically determined,
like height and weight, and they exhibit a range of values matching the
distribution of political points of view. Progressives on the left,
independents in the middle, and Conservatives on the right.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt;">As a social animal, man had to learn how to get
along in a group by developing an external morality. He did that to take
advantage of what the group had to offer (safety, shared resources, etc.), so
his external morality had to be tuned to the morality of the group. In the
egalitarian bands of humans in a primitive state, that worked well for a group
size of 50-100. But the advent of agriculture changed everything. With a
guaranteed food supply, man could now live together in densely populated
groups. That structure demanded a new social model to maintain order, so, governments
developed to help manage the social and economic stratification that came with
it. Complex society has its own morality consisting of laws and social mores,
which exists apart from the personal morality of individuals. It’s dynamic and
adapts over time (e.g. changing views of Homosexuality).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt;">The political systems of antiquity represent
man’s initial efforts to deal with a new social dynamic. Mesopotamia, one if
the pioneering cultures, started out as a theocracy but eventually became a
monarchy. Rome and Greece were also profoundly influential models: Rome with
its Republic creating a balance between social and economic classes and the
Greeks with their Democracy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt;">My book is focused on Progressives and their
unique political morality (a book on Conservatives comes later) and there is
plenty of history to discuss. I have chapters on Mesopotamia and Greece and
Rome. There are also chapters on the creation of the American political system and
the history of the Progressive Movement.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt;">All that history forms the basis of a
discussion about the Progressives, their view of government, and they influence
they exert over American politics today.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 13.0pt;">I will provide a link for viewing and
purchasing the book once it becomes available next week.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-51148506571879705862017-11-17T11:03:00.000-05:002017-11-17T11:03:03.072-05:00Academic Position Opening<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ERC-project REDHIS – position for a post-doctoral researcher:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"<i>Studio delle opere giuridiche romane
nella Tarda Antichità: manoscritti e papiri</i>" "<i>A study of Roman legal writings in Late Antiquity: manuscripts and
papyri</i>".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Deadline for application: <b>November 27th, 2017</b></span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The research project REDHIS (“Rediscovering
the Hidden Structure. A New Appreciation of Juristic Texts and Patterns of
Thought in Late Antiquity”) is opening a position for a <b>post-doctoral researcher</b>. The
appointment will be for<b> two
years</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">REDHIS is an interdisciplinary research
project hosted by the Università di Pavia (Italy) and funded by an
ERC-advanced grant (Principal Investigator: Prof. Dario Mantovani; Senior
Staff: Prof. Luigi Pellecchi). The project studies the continued existence of a
high-level legal culture in Late Antiquity, as shown among other things by the
copying and continued use of the writings of the classical jurists. A
comprehensive understanding of legal culture includes therefore the study of
the transmission of these texts and the reception of their contents. To learn
more about the REDHIS Project, visit our website at <a href="http://redhis.unipv.it/" target="_blank"><span style="color: #1155cc;">http://redhis.unipv.it/</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In line with the goals of the project, the
appointee will be asked to contribute several well-researched chapters, <b>written in English</b>, to an extensive
collaborative volume on the circulation, use, and reception of Roman juristic
writings in Late Antiquity. Depending on her/his precise qualifications, the
appointee may also be asked to contribute to the project’s annotated corpus of
juristic papyri.<br />
<br />
In pursuing her/his research, the appointed applicant will be supervised by the
Principal Investigator. She/he will collaborate with other staff and
post-doctoral researchers in an interdisciplinary working group. Place of work:
University of Pavia, Pavia (Italy).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Preference will be given to applicants who hold a PhD awarded by a University
from outside Italy, with a doctoral dissertation in one of the following
scholarly areas: Classical Philology, Palaeography, Papyrology, Ancient
History, Latin, and/or Roman law. The doctoral dissertation has to show that
the applicant is competent in and comfortable with applying a philological
approach to the study of Roman legal texts, in Latin and Greek, in order to
contribute fruitfully to the research objectives of REDHIS. We are looking
for someone with experience in writing in (and translating into) <b>English</b>.<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The closing date for applications is <b>27 November 2017</b>. Applicants are
advised to make sure that their applications comply with Italian regulations as
laid out in the official “bando” of this post, which can be found in Italian
and English at <a href="http://dsg.unipv.it/home/bandi-assegni-di-ricerca-e-co-co-co/progetto-redhis-bando-n-9-2017-per-il-conferimento-di-n-1-assegno-di-ricerca-call-for-award-of-n-1-type-b-research-grant.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #1155cc;">http://dsg.unipv.it/home/bandi-assegni-di-ricerca-e-co-co-co/progetto-redhis-bando-n-9-2017-per-il-conferimento-di-n-1-assegno-di-ricerca-call-for-award-of-n-1-type-b-research-grant.html</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In case you have any questions or require
assistance of any kind with the formalities, please do not hesitate to contact
Dr. Matthijs Wibier (<a href="mailto:mh.wibier@unipv.it" target="_blank"><span style="color: #1155cc;">mh.wibier@unipv.it</span></a>).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<br />
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<span style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Further informal enquiries may be directed
to Prof. Dario Mantovani (<a href="mailto:dario.mantovani@unipv.it" target="_blank"><span style="color: #1155cc;">dario.mantovani@unipv.it</span></a>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-7911033906236427952017-11-17T10:57:00.001-05:002017-11-17T10:57:51.818-05:00Interesting Quora<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
I answer questions on Quora as
someone who understands Ancient History. It’s been an interesting experience,
because the readers over there are less knowledgeable about the subject matter than
the people that come here. They also have different agendas. I’ve answered 160
questions since May and there are many new questions each day about ancient
history.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The questions break themselves
down into about four categories: Really good ones, what ifs, time machine,
and do my homework.<o:p></o:p></div>
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An example of a really good
question is “Why didn’t Caesar choose Marc Antony as his successor?” That
person had read the history but what seemed obvious to him, wasn’t. <o:p></o:p></div>
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What ifs are questions about
changing an event in ancient history. For example, “What if Caesar hadn’t been
assassinated. Would the Republic have survived? Most of these are easy to
answer because important trends in history develop their own momentum, which
cannot be stopped by changing a single event. The Republic was doomed to fail
because of inevitable failure of the Senate to control the entire landscape of
the Republic.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Time machine questions are my
favorites and are usually good for a laugh. For example, if the American Army
went back to the ancient world, could they have defeated the Spartans? Or a
variation of this is “If the Spartans had AK47s, would they have controlled all
of Greece?” </div>
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The last, and most egregious type
of question is “Do my homework.” For example, “Give the three most important
reasons why the Roman Empire fell and write them in complete sentences.” LOL.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-38443391014197950622017-10-27T14:44:00.001-04:002017-10-30T07:43:35.623-04:00Let me take you on a tour of the Roman Forum<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
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I have
just completed an <a href="https://voicemap.me/tour/rome/the-roman-forum">Audio Tour of the Roman Forum</a> in conjunction with Voicemap, a
company that offers audio tours of cities and famous places. The concept is
interesting. You play the tour on your phone and the app uses GPS to know when
to start and stop the narrative based on your location. Each stop has a story to
tell and you start to hear that story as you approach.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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You can
have the phone in your pocket and listen to the tour with earbuds. As you move
about, there is a map on your phone screen which can serve as an aid in case
you lose your way.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
This tour
includes 32 different locations and you learn the history of the structures you
see at each stop. We've made sure to cover all the most interesting structures:
the Senate House, Temple of Castor and Pollux, House of the Vestal Virgins, and
the Arch of Septimius Severus, to name a few.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<br />
<b>Beginning</b><br />
The Forum was
originally laid out in 625 BC, when the swamp that occupied the space between
the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, was drained. The sewer built to drain it,
called the Cochlea Maxima is still in operation today. Later, the Capitoline Hill became the site of Rome's sacred temples and the Palatine became the home of the Caesars.</div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b>Golden Age</b><br />
The Forum most likely reached its Zenith during the second century AD, sometimes called the Golden Age. There were four emperors during this period; Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Although the personalities of these men were very different, together they succeeded in keeping the Empire stable. The Sacra Via (central roadway in the Forum) would have seen the triumphs of these men and the speeches they gave at the rostra. By that time, the Senate House had lost its standing because political power had been removed from the Senate. Still, it remained standing (as it does today), symbolizing the accomplishments of the Republic.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br />
<b>Fall of the Empire</b><br />
The Forum met an
inglorious end when the Western Empire fell. Its monuments were neglected and
the marble and bronze hauled off to be used in the construction of Christian
monuments. The church retained no respect for structures erected by a pagan
empire, so fourteen centuries saw the Forum waste away as a <i>Campo Vaccino</i> (cow pasture). It wasn’t
until 1898 that excavations of the Forum began in earnest. By then, a united
Italy was an independent nation looking to its own history and accomplishments
with pride and wanted to share them with the world. I’ve been to the Forum
twice (twenty-five years apart) and the excavations that took place between those
trips brought to light many new structures.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
Here are the
instructions for downloading the app.</div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
1)
Install VoiceMap from the iTunes App Store or Google Play, <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
or
by going to <a href="http://onelink.to/voicemap" target="_blank"><span style="color: #1155cc; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">onelink.to/voicemap</span></a> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
2)
Sign up with Facebook or email<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
3)
Select Rome from the list of cities and regions<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
4)
Select “Rome The-roman-forum”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
5)
Buy the tour (The Forum tour is free right now). The download will start
immediately.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 150%;">VoiceMap works
offline and uses GPS to play audio automatically</span></i><br />
<br />Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-52478514630589063642017-10-21T16:11:00.000-04:002017-10-21T16:12:14.635-04:00The Melodramatic Funeral of Julius Caesar<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Almost
everyone knows the story of the death of Julius Caesar, as Shakespeare has
reminded us. He was assassinated on the Ides of March 44 BC by a group of
disgruntled Senators who believed him to be on a path to become dictator and
destroy the Republic. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">The
truth is Caesar was merely one of many who pushed the Republic to extinction.
The collapse began in 133 BC with the murder of Tiberius Gracchus, continued
through the dictatorships of Marius and Sulla, and ended with the formation of
the Principate under Augustus in 30 BC. That didn’t matter to the Senate of 44 BC that was
struggling to hold on to power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Caesar’s
image had been carefully cultivated by his followers prior to and after his
ascension to power. His military accomplishments were advertised and his
efforts on behalf of the people were socialized. Caesar was a patrician, latest
member of the ancient family of the Julii, which dated to the founding of Rome.
That historical link helped lend a sense of honor and stability to the name
Caesar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Caesar’s
greatest offence was to put his image on Roman coins, a place previously
reserved for the gods. This was calculated symbolism designed to reinforce the
notion that Caesar himself was a god, and this was proven by his image on the coins.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">But
this was a marketing campaign aimed directly at the people and never bought
into by the Senate, so they assassinated him as a threat to their power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Appian
describes Caesar’s funeral and its melodrama. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Caesar’s
father-in-law, Piso brought his body to the forum and it was placed on the
rostra surrounded by an armed guard. The large crowd was of one emotion and
Antony saw it as his role to whip them into a fever pitch.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<i><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">It is not
right, my fellow-citizens, for the funeral oration in praise of so great a man
to be delivered by me, a single individual, instead of by his whole country.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Antony
went on to read out all the honors bestowed on Caesar, one at a time, using
words like <span style="color: #444444;">"sacrosanct",
"inviolate", "father of his country",
"benefactor", or "leader", a combination never used to
describe another Roman.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<i><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">And he read
out the oaths, by which they all undertook to protect Caesar and Caesar's
person with all their might… those who failed to defend him were to be accursed.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Antony
turned to the body and chanted heavenly praise for the dead man,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<i><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">And you", he said, "were also the only man to avenge
the violence offered to your country 300 years ago, by bringing to their
knees the savage peoples who were the only ones ever to break in to Rome and
set fire to it." </span></i><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">This is a reference to Caesar’s victory over the Gauls who had
attacked Rome in 390 BC.<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div style="background: white; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="background: white; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Antony took the cape that
covered Caesar’s body, stuck it on a spear, and waved it about so the crowd
could observe the blood stains on it. By now the crowd had worked itself into a
frenzy and was demanding the death of the assassins who had struck down their
leader. </span><span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Suddenly a wax body of
Caesar rose above the rostra for all to see. It was sitting on a platform and
attached to a mechanical device which utilized a crank to make the body rotate.
On it were painted 23 marks of blood showing the locations of the stab wounds
on Caesar’s body. Round and round it went for all to see.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="background: white; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: #444444; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">When Antony was finished,
people rushed to the rostra with the intent to take Caesar’s body up Capitoline
Hill and burn it at the most sacred site in the city. But the priests
intervened saying that the risk of an uncontrolled fire was too great and they
would not allow the body to be burned there. So the people carried Caesar’s body
to the east end of Forum square intending to create a funeral pyre there. They
grabbed wooden benches and broke them up to provide fuel for the fire.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="background: white; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">After
the fire was lit, it burned for twenty-four hours in the midst of a crowd of
thousands. Years later, the Temple of the Divine Caesar was constructed on that
site. Today, the temple is gone, and only a part of the altar remains. Still,
there are Romans who place flowers there every day in honor of the great
man.</span></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-65388162329674999502017-03-14T22:13:00.000-04:002017-03-31T10:43:13.470-04:00The Ides of March and Julius Caesar<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
On the eve
of the Ides of March we start with a cartoon -- Caesar with a contemporary twist.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XlWNp7WH5SY/WMidq1u-guI/AAAAAAAAVIM/9AqRsKArbCsJugnNMbWAohFiksEAeWAyQCLcB/s1600/C6mw-SuU4AA5ED3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XlWNp7WH5SY/WMidq1u-guI/AAAAAAAAVIM/9AqRsKArbCsJugnNMbWAohFiksEAeWAyQCLcB/s400/C6mw-SuU4AA5ED3.jpg" width="315" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
My thanks to Guido Giuntini for allowing me to use this.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Does
everyone know the details of Caesar’s death? Perhaps a review would be helpful.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
The Ides were
one of the three calendar divisions in the Roman month. In its original
version, the Roman calendar designated the date of the new moon as the start of the
Kalends, the date of the half moon the start of the Nones, and the date of the
full moon the Ides. Oddly, the Roman days were referenced by counting down to
the next period rather than counting up. So March 2 was VI Non Mar, or six days until the first day of
the Nones. When the month reached the Nones, days were counted down until the
Ides. After the Ides, the days were counted down until the start of the next
month. So the day after the Ides might be XV Apr – fifteen days until April.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
In the year 44
BC, Caesar planned to address the Senate on the Ides but at the last minute
thought of cancelling the meeting because the auspices were negative. To make
matters worse, his wife had nightmares about him being assassinated on the
Ides, but Caesar dismissed these superstitions and kept the meeting as scheduled.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
The
conspirators sent Caesar’s cousin to fetch him knowing that he would not raise
any suspicion. Then, with Caesar enroute, the conspirators waited with great
anxiety. They feared being discovered and could hardly endure the endless passage of
time. Finally Caesar arrived and took his seat. As the session began a Senator, Marcus Tillius
Cimber, requested that he be allowed to read a petition. As he moved forward, several
conspirators gathered around the dictator. Suddenly, Tillius seized Caesar’s
toga and pulled it down exposing his neck as a sign for the dagger blows to
begin. Caesar tried to rise and, according to one account, stabbed an adversary
with his stylus, before being overwhelmed. Suetonius says that Caesar shouted
“this is violence!”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
As the attack continued, Caesar is
said to have pulled the toga over his head, after realizing he
would soon die in an attempt to retain some dignity in death. Shakespeare has
Caesar utter, “Et tu Brute (you too Brutus?), but these were the playwright's words written for dramatic effect. Their work complete, the
conspirators fled, either through fear
or shame at what they had done. Caesar's body lay alone in the chamber for some
time until it was retrieved by his slaves.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
A physician was called in to examine Caesar’s body and counted 23 stab wounds. Only one was lethal, the
second blow struck, which entered his chest.<o:p></o:p></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-69314458755820554992017-02-27T08:57:00.000-05:002017-03-31T10:44:48.276-04:00Trump in the Ancient World?<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">I decided to interrupt my series on the Byzantine Empire to write
a piece about the current political climate in the United States. Not in my
lifetime has there been such a state of confusion in American politics, so I’d
like to try and ease people’s minds using ancient history as a context.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Since Donald Trump took office, there has been a cataclysmic
angst enveloping the country, which shows no signs of abating. This angst, in
my opinion, is based on three factors. The first is the relentless attack on
Trump by the left, through the media and in demonstrations. This has created
pressure on elected democrats to adopt a scorched earth strategy regarding
Trump (burn down everything). One would expect disappointment and anger to
follow any close election, but it is outsized and more visceral this time, even
when you consider the media’s handling of the drama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The second factor is a rebound response from the left based
on their shock that Hillary lost combined with second guessing on why this
happened. The left was very comfortable with continuing the trend toward a more
socialist/progressive federal government, and their ease with the prospects for
it to continue after 2016 were fueled by the media and the wide rejection of
Trump as a candidate who could win. Unfortunately, their arrogance led to
complacency.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The third factor, which crosses all political stripes, is
the break in behavior Trump has made from every president before him. He doesn’t
play the establishment role -- no quiet consultation and analysis on issues, no
stiff control of information, and no politeness, to be honest. This is jarring
to the public, because it’s all new and gives an impression of chaos, or an
approach to governance that seems out of control. Republicans are as nervous as
democrats.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The great sociologist Max Weber wrote about the basis for legitimacy
of political leadership and defined three types: hereditary, charismatic, and rational-legal.
Hereditary legitimacy is power based on family. This is the traditional royal
family model where the son of the king becomes king. An unfortunate byproduct
of this form is uneven quality of governance in and between generations. If the
son of a great king is a loser, the political system goes through a period of
instability. I often cite the example of the British crown as an example of
this phenomenon. At the time of Henry VIII, the British monarch had ultimate
power over the realm and Parliament was operating as a powerless opponent.
After Henry, and through subsequent generations, Parliament used periods of poor
kingship as opportunities to transfer power to itself. The endpoint of that
process was a ceremonial monarchy devoid of power.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Charismatic legitimacy is granted by popular opinion. The
personality of the leader is such that citizens take pride in being ruled by and
expect great things from someone who is an elegant speaker and can control
their emotions. But there are at least two problems with this. The first is
that the power only lasts as long as the leader. When the leader goes away, there
is a vacuum created when the next leader is less charismatic, so this type of
legitimacy the least stable of the three.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">But there is a second problem also. Charisma is dangerous when
the leader is motivated in a direction that runs counter to the interests of those
being governed. Think Hitler. Definitely charismatic; but at the same time a
bad actor. More recently, we have the example of Obama who, unlike Hitler,
never wavered from his effort to make America better. His legitimacy was based
on charisma; not experience. Prior to being elected, he had served four years
in the Senate and seven years in the Illinois legislature -- a short resume.
But he was the perfect charismatic candidate – a black man who was intelligent,
articulate, accomplished, and convincing in his argument that he could usher in
a new era of unity for the United States. He also enjoyed the lucky circumstance
of running against a party that had been in power for eight years with an
uneven record. In the end, despite his charisma, it’s fair to say that the
Obama presidency accomplished less than the American people had hoped for.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The third type of legitimacy is called rational-legal. This describes
a formal structure which, in itself, grants legitimacy. In the United States we
have a system of voting that allows all citizens to cast ballots for a slate of
candidates. Checks are in place to make sure that citizens are not denied the
right to vote and that the votes that are cast are legitimate. The American
public’s belief that this system is honest grants legitimacy to those elected. Recall
the hanging chad election of 2000. Once the votes were checked and re-checked, and
the American people saw there was no corrupt process at work, Bush took office,
and was accepted as president by the American people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Now, with Weber’s theory as a backdrop, I’d like to go back
to antiquity and look at a couple of relevant examples. There was no
rational-legal option in those days, at least in the way we would see it today.
Most ancient political systems were authoritarian and in the case of a few
exceptions, participation was not equal. Only men who were landholders could
vote or serve as candidates, and there was the always the potential for large
scale corruption of the voting process. That means that political legitimacy
was limited to heredity or charismatic behaviors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">The first
example is Solon, the great republican of Athens, who rose to power around 600
BC, at time when Athens was in great disarray. As Plutarch puts it, “<span style="background: white; line-height: 107%;">the state was on the verge
of revolution, because of the excessive poverty of some citizens, and the
enormous wealth of others, and it appeared that the only means of putting an
end to these disorders was by establishing an absolute despotism.” Solon was
elected Archon in 594 because “most sensible men in Athens perceived that he
was a person who shared the vices of neither faction, as he took no part in the
oppressive conduct of the wealthy, and yet had sufficient fortune to save him
from the straits to which the poor were reduced”. Solon’s charisma and forceful
personality led party leaders to urge him to take absolute power and make
himself king. But he saw risks in that title and refused. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Athens
was the first great democracy in the history of the world, and stands as an
enduring example of a government granting rights to their citizens, but Solon
was not a democrat. He was a republican who believed that republics were a
better form of government than democracies. He rejected democratic equality –
choosing instead a way of creating a balance between the classes. He believed
the strengthening of the middle class would neutralize the conflict between the
upper and lower, a sentiment we often discuss today.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 107%;">To rule properly, Solon thought it best to “combine
force and justice together” and he became “Trump-like”. H</span><span style="line-height: 107%;">e started changing Laws. What laws? Nearly
all of them. He cancelled all debts and obligations in Athens, repealed the
dreaded Draconian criminal code and substituted his own, and then he wrote a
new constitution. These efforts were based on his judgment that the
establishment was no longer working and needed to be overturned.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">After
his goals were accomplished, Solon resigned from power and left Athens -- a
rare case of a man who held charismatic power but refused to be corrupted by
it.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">My
second example is Julius Caesar. Highborn as a member of the family Julii,
Caesar aspired to wealth and power. He knew that the family name and his status
as a patrician gained him hereditary legitimacy for a career in government, but
that was not enough. He wanted more. Caesar was intelligent with significant
political instincts, but he saw obstacles in his intended path. He had enormous
debts, which left him poor compared to men like Crassus and he possessed a weak
military record which could not be compared to that of Pompey. The solution?
Align with his two rivals until he could sharpen up his resume. </span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Engaging his
political skills, Caesar suggested that he, Pompey, and Crassus form a unique
administrative structure called a triumvirate, which would have all three rule
the republic as partners. Then, once that structure was put in place, Caesar
had himself made governor of Gaul.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">For
ten years Caesar ruled Gaul through a series of wars that left him with first
rate military credentials and great wealth based on tax collections and bribes.
Now sensing superiority over his partners (Crassus indifference to power and
Pompey’s lack of political skill), Caesar made his move when he crossed the
Rubicon. Defeating his rivals, be became supreme dictator of the republic. But
whatever charisma Caesar may have had, it was not enough to overcome the anger
and displeasure of the ruling class toward his arrogant theft of power. The
republic was not ready to give up its trappings, so Caesar was assassinated.
Unfortunately, the resulting vacuum of power caused further instability. The
Senate had no great leader to help them restore the old Rome, so the republic drifted
through fourteen years of contests for power until Octavian was able to win out
and build a new political system.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Unlike
Solon, Caesar was corrupted by power. He used charisma to his advantage but
went too far. The last straw for the Senate was when he put his image on Roman coins,
a place previously reserved for the gods.</span></span></div>
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-K2IQalspyb8/WLQv68kdpVI/AAAAAAAAVF4/bu5EljAY2CIwv5Knbfpd_bmALej3pROHQCLcB/s1600/caesar.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-K2IQalspyb8/WLQv68kdpVI/AAAAAAAAVF4/bu5EljAY2CIwv5Knbfpd_bmALej3pROHQCLcB/s1600/caesar.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">So now
we fast forward to the current day, and return our discussion to Mr. Trump.
Elections throughout history have shown us that leaders get elected for a
reason, not luck. It’s usually the merging of a personality with the times
(works in Trump’s case), based on events that occur during the election
campaign, emerging external threats, or the failures of the previous
administration. Trump got elected because a) the democrats had been in power
for the previous eight years, b) Mrs. Clinton was a flawed candidate who
represented the establishment, c) people we fed up with the failures of an
establishment-driven government, and d) Trump, as a successful businessman and
outsider, was able to communicate to the American people about what he could
accomplish.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Trump’s
style is populist, a cousin to charisma. One would not call him charismatic in
Weber’s sense, although success in business might engender respect, but populists
succeed because people like leaders who they think understand their problems
and want to fix them. Trump created enough support so that the rational-legal
legitimization process could carry him to the white house, even though he
channeled more cowboy than statesman. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">American
elections are always about the political pendulum and which way it’s swinging.
Right left right left. The swing is never uniform because its endpoint is
partly determined by the uniqueness of the recent past, and we end up being pushed
to a new place. Societies move forward in “fits and starts” because human
behavior is often irrational, so a government can never be more than the sum of
its people’s humanness.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">There
have been a thousand Trumps in </span><b style="font-family: inherit;">world history</b><span style="font-family: inherit;">
even if there have been none in America. In the end, Trump like every other
elected leader will endure or fail based on what he is able to accomplish for
the American people. If we can become more relaxed about his style and avoid
too many literal interpretations of his behavior, things have a chance to get
better.</span></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-54460234507101831002017-02-15T21:53:00.000-05:002017-02-15T22:07:15.498-05:00The Byzantine Empire 610-668<div class="MsoNormal">
The next chapter in the history of the Byzantine Empire features
two emperors, Heraclius and Constans. Their ability to survive an onslaught of
wars that would have brought down many an empire would solidify the Byzantine
model for centuries to come.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As mentioned in the previous article, Heraclius became
successor to Phocas when he led a rebellion against him in 610. Heraclius reigned
until his death in 641, and his military accomplishments were amazing as you
will soon see.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZKXPhY0XI8g/WKUSGH0SxwI/AAAAAAAAVEs/VQdA3Tjrb784cf0QxTcq1NNlzDziTKB-ACEw/s1600/byz%2Bmap.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZKXPhY0XI8g/WKUSGH0SxwI/AAAAAAAAVEs/VQdA3Tjrb784cf0QxTcq1NNlzDziTKB-ACEw/s400/byz%2Bmap.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The map shown above summarizes the military activity of the
Byzantine Army during the reign of Heraclius. Click on the image to enlarge it.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
611 – The Persians attack and take
Antioch<o:p></o:p></div>
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613 – The Byzantine Army is defeated
at Antioch by the Persians<o:p></o:p></div>
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613 -- The Persians move south and
take Palestine<o:p></o:p></div>
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616 – The Persians attack and
threaten Anatolia near Constantinople<o:p></o:p></div>
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616 – The Persians attack Alexandria<o:p></o:p></div>
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622 – The Byzantines defeat the
Persians in eastern Anatolia.<o:p></o:p></div>
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624 – The Byzantines capture Theodosiopolis
and move into Armenia<o:p></o:p></div>
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625 – The Byzantines defeat the
Persians at Atropatene<o:p></o:p></div>
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627 – The Byzantines defeat the
Persians near Nineveh<o:p></o:p></div>
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628 – The Byzantine–Persian War ends
with a peace treaty<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Meanwhile,
starting in 622, Muhammad took over the Arabian Peninsula creating the kingdom
of Islam, which he consolidated until his death in 632. Then in<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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634 – The Islamic Army attacks and
takes Palestine<o:p></o:p></div>
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636 – The Islamic Army attacks and
takes Damascus<o:p></o:p></div>
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637 – The Islamic Army attacks and
takes Ctesiphon, the Persian capital<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
The gap in
the Byzantine–Persian War starting in 616, is explained by two factors. First,
the Byzantines had to re-group after their initial losses, rebuild their army,
and borrow money. Second, they were engaged in the Balkans fighting the Slavs,
Goths, Bulgars, and Avars; enemies that had to be dealt with before the army could again be directed to the east again. At one point in 616,
Constantinople, itself, was under siege by the tribes of the Balkans from the
west and the Persians from the east.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Heraclius
turned out to be the consummate war leader, who was able to withstand all the
attacks on his empire, but died an ill man, broken by the pressure of war. His
people did not appreciate all he was able to accomplish and did not miss him when he was gone.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Heraclius
window, Martina, had a son with him, who she favored over Constantine the son
of his first wife, Eudocia. Constantine was named emperor, but was sick
with Tuberculosis, and died after three months as emperor. Martina supported
her son Heraclonas as the replacement, but he was eventually pushed aside by
the handlers of the eleven year old Constans, the son of Constantine. The boy
matured quickly and by 645, ordered his navy to attack the Arabs (Islamists) at
Alexandria. The attack force eventually had to abandon the effort when
resistance stiffened. During the years 645-648, Constans was on the defensive
as the Arabs attacked Byzantine Africa and Cyprus, but then his luck turned.
The aforementioned losses were reversed and then in 654, as the Arabs were
starting a major attack, an Arab civil war broke out.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
Constans
used the internal conflict between the Arabs as an opportunity to reorganize
the Byzantine army, and he accomplished the task brilliantly. Creating a novel
organizational structure called “themata” (themes), he divided the empire into
geographical territories. Each theme was made up of a mobile army unit settled
in a specific district that it was assigned to defend. Its soldiers were given
land grants to tie them to the land and fund the purchase of supplies. This structure
created loyalty because every man was now motivated to protect his own property.
Each theme utilized a Greek name, such as Anatolian, Thracian, and Armeniac.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
In 661, the
Arab Civil War ended and from the Byzantine point of view, the wrong side won.
The losing side had been easier to create treaties with than the winner, so
Constans looked forward to a more hostile enemy. But he also had pressing
problems in the west, so he put off going into battle with the Arabs, and
sailed for Thessalonica in 662. After setting up a new theme on the Greek
Peninsula, the emperor departed for Tarentum in the heel of Italy the next
year. He fought the Lombards and was victorious over them before moving on to
meet with the pope in Rome. Later that year, Constans moved on to Sicily which
was strategic to his efforts to strengthen his control over Italy and Northern
Africa.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
In 665,
there was an Arab attack on Africa which had to be fought off. Meanwhile the
Arabs continued to peck away at imperial holdings in Anatolia. In 668, one of
the Byzantine military leaders, Saborius, taking advantage of the emperor’s
five year absence, declared himself emperor and put together an army force to attack
Constantinople. On the way there, he fell off his horse and was killed. This
good fortune enjoyed by Constans was short-lived, however, because the emperor
was assassinated that summer while in the bath. Dead at 38, he had accomplished
much – keeping the Arabs at bay and strengthening imperial holdings in Sicily
and Africa. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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</div>
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Key words for this period – Hericlius, Mohammed, Islam, Byzantine Wars<o:p></o:p></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-76985078973319696092017-02-05T11:01:00.000-05:002017-02-05T11:01:58.131-05:00The Byzantine Empire 518-610<div class="MsoNormal">
The title of my last post included dates representing the
time interval for the setup of the eastern empire and its separation from the
west. Telling the story of the Byzantine Empire is such a large project, it demands
that we divide it up into time intervals and focus on the highlights within
each of them. The empire expanded and contracted over time based on its success
at keeping the provinces in line and its ability to defeat those who would try
and destroy it. Each period demonstrates a micro view through the events of the
time, but also a macro view of the changing culture with respect to language,
religion, and culture. Remember that the Byzantine Empire was an “empire” only by
the loosest definition and never achieved status as a unified culture the way
modern societies have.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When the Byzantine emperor Anastasius died suddenly in 518
AD with no heir, the imperial guard named the 68 year old Justin as the new
emperor. Justin had an adopted son Peter, who also went by the name Justinian,
a man was destined for greatness. Justin inherited two projects: the schism
between the eastern empire and the papacy and a rebellion against the empire by
Vitalian. He fixed both by mending fences with the pope and inviting Vitalian
to serve as his master of horse to keep an eye on him. But his leadership
skills were wanting so it was not long before Justinian began to accumulate
power. He served as consul in 521 AD and was fully in charge at the time of Justin’s
death in 527.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Justinian was an all-star in Byzantine history based on his
dizzying list of projects and accomplishments. They would later have a far
reaching impact on the empire and Western Europe. He started by shoring up the
eastern army to protect the empire from the Persians. Then he appointed a
council or jurists to create an official book of laws that would govern the
empire. This effort produced the Justinian code which became the standard for
European law for centuries to come.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Next, Justinian looked toward using his army to protect and
expand the empire. He defeated the Persians and took Crimea. He defeated the
Slavs and Bulgars in 530, making the Danube basin secure again. Justinian signed
a peace treaty with the Persians freeing his up his eastern army to help attack
the west. In 532, he planned an attack against the African vandals, but before
he could depart, there was a coup against him in Constantinople which had to be
put down. In 533, his general, Belisarius, defeated the Vandals and took
Carthage. Belisarius also secured Sardinia, Corsica, and Gibraltar. This was
the extension of the Roman Empire in reverse – taking back land that was part
of the western empire for so many centuries.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
But the prize – Italy – was still out there to be taken. How
wonderful it would be to have Italy as part of the empire again, Justinian
mused. Soon, he directed his two best generals to attack Dalmatia and Sicily --
both were taken. A nervous Ostrogoth king than made a secret pact to surrender
Italy to Justinian’s troops. The pact was later rescinded, but the army of the
east still prevailed at securing the Italian peninsula.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The king of Persia, seeing Justinian’s eyes turned west,
decided to attack the Byzantines. Syria and Armenia were invaded and it took
until 541 to end that conflict. That same year, the plague made its first appearance in southern
Europe. By the spring of 542 it had spread to all seaports in the eastern
Mediterranean, and there were 230,000 deaths in Constantinople alone. Justinian
contracted the plague and became seriously ill, but survived.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The period of 542-548 saw wars, famine, and the plague as
main actors in the story of the empire of the east. Then starting in 550, the
emperor moved his army westward fortifying his control of Italy and conquering
southern Spain. It took him another five years to stabilize the new western
territories and then a calm period followed, only to be interrupted in by the
return of the plague in 558. Then, more wars in the east ensued until 562, when
the swords were finally still.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Justinian died in 565 at the age of 83, after a long a
successful reign. The great frustration of his final years was his inability to
unite the two warring Christian factions – Chalcedons and Monophysites -- and
settle their argument over the divine nature of Jesus of Nazareth.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Justinian was followed by Justin II, Tiberius, Maurice, and
Phocas during the period ending in 610. Justin, as the immediate successor,
tried too hard to be Justinian and had fewer gifts of leadership to apply to
the task. He mostly ignored the new western territories, causing them to come
under attack. He spent his time focused on Persia and when an attack on them
failed in 573, his mind gave way, and it was arranged to have the leading
general Tiberius named as successor. Tiberius was a better military man than
administrator so isn’t surprising that he decided the army was underpaid and
used money from the treasury to win them over. Like his predecessor, he ignored
the west because a war with Persia loomed on the horizon. That war was won by
the general Maurice in 582, but Tiberius died soon after.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Before his death, Tiberius named Maurice emperor. The
general looked at the empty treasury that resulted from Tiberius’ generosity and
tried to refill it by periodically eliminated the army’s compensation. That
generated at least two revolts, one of which led to his assassination in 602.
Maurice was able to maintain stability during his reign as a result of
victories over the Avars in the Balkans and the Persians in Armenia and
Mesopotamia, but with his death became the first eastern emperor to lose his
crown since the time of Constantine.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Phocas is to be given some credit for remaining in power for
eight years. He executed Maurice and his family to try and legitimize his power
but lived in an unlikely time. Wars with Persia continued, the plague returned,
and the cut off of grain shipments caused a famine in the empire. When the people’s
level of pain and disruption grew intolerable, the general Hericlius started a
revolt, captured Phocas, and accused him of ruining the empire. As he was about
to be beheaded, Phocas wished him better luck during his reign.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Byzantine Empire during this period was greatly divided.
The recovered provinces in the Italian Peninsula and Spain were distant, Latin
speaking, and hard to manage, while the east maintained a strong army and spoke
mostly Greek. The Catholic Church remained divided over the nature of Jesus and
the power of the pope, but did manage to convert the empire’s remaining pagans
and accumulate great wealth and authority.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When paganism was suppressed, it took with it all the
contributions of the Greeks, including their science, philosophy, and literature,
so what remained was defined by a Catholic view of the world.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Byzantine Empire was larger in 610 than when the west
fell, but it was also less stable. The skills of the emperors had been
variable, the treasury often empty, and wars commonplace. Whether the empire
could survive another century was a question mark.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Key words for this period: EXPANSION TO THE WEST, JUSTINIAN,
PLAGUES, A DIVIDED CHURCH, CONTINUOUS WARS.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-649431201703508681.post-84712539997664318162017-01-17T14:58:00.001-05:002017-01-17T15:01:41.912-05:00Thanks a million to my readersThis morning the one millionth visitor accessed my site, marking an exciting milestone.<br />
<br />
I'd like to take a moment to thank all my readers for their interest, comments, and suggestions. The popularity of the site tells me people like the content, and that motivates me to continue the research required to put these posts together.<br />
<br />
The site has been visited by people from 117 different countries. The top five are the United States, Ukraine, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Of the 327 posts on the site, the most popular title is "The maniple as a tactical unit in the Roman Army", with 34,000 visits.<br />
<br />
As we go forward, I would remind everyone to reach out and let me know what subject matter you'd like to see, and I will do my best to accommodate the request.Mike Andersonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02072553719998549925noreply@blogger.com0